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| − | [[Portal:Hydro|►Back to Hydro Portal]]<br/>
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| − | <br/> | + | = Overview<br/> = |
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| − | == Overview ==
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| | The identification of appropriate mitigation and intervention techniques on the basis of the [[Environment Assessment Related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia|Environment Assessment]] is crucial for the implementation of a successful [[Watershed Action Planning related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia|Watershed Action Plan]] in order to achieve a sustainable use of the catchment area and thus the MHP project. | | The identification of appropriate mitigation and intervention techniques on the basis of the [[Environment Assessment Related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia|Environment Assessment]] is crucial for the implementation of a successful [[Watershed Action Planning related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia|Watershed Action Plan]] in order to achieve a sustainable use of the catchment area and thus the MHP project. |
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| | Biophysical as well as political mitigation and intervention techniques are presented in this article.'''<span style="color: rgb(255,255,255)"></span>'''<br/> | | Biophysical as well as political mitigation and intervention techniques are presented in this article.'''<span style="color: rgb(255,255,255)"></span>'''<br/> |
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| − | == Biophysical Measures ==
| + | = Biophysical Measures<br/> = |
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| | == Gully Control<br/> == | | == Gully Control<br/> == |
| | ► [[Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Gully Control|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Gully Control]] | | ► [[Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Gully Control|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Gully Control]] |
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| | == Agro-forestry, Forage Development and Forestry<br/> == | | == Agro-forestry, Forage Development and Forestry<br/> == |
| | ► [[Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Agro-forestry, Forage Development and Forestry|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Agro-forestry, Forage Development and Forestry]] | | ► [[Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Agro-forestry, Forage Development and Forestry|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Agro-forestry, Forage Development and Forestry]] |
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| − | == Soil Fertility Management and Biological Soil Conservation ==
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| − | ► [[Micro-hydro_Power_(MHP)_Projects_-_Mitigation_and_Intervention_Techniques_-_Soil_Fertility_Management_and_Biological_Soil_Conservation|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Soil Fertility Management and Biological Soil Conservation]]
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| − | == Flood Control and Improved Drainage<ref name="desta">_</ref><br/> ==
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| − | === Waterways (Vegetative and Stone Paved) ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | | style="width: 507px" | <u>Objectives</u>: A waterway is a natural or artificial drainage channel constructed along the steepest<br/>slope or in a valley to receive/accommodate runoff from cut-off drains and graded terraces/bunds. The waterway '''carries the run-off to rivers, reservoirs or gullies safely without creating erosion'''. A vegetative waterway can be constructed in areas without stones. The main advantage is that waterways can be constructed for both very small and large size catchments, thus accommodating individual or communal needs for drainage and evacuation/use of excess run-off. Paved waterways are suitable in steeper terrains and areas with large amount of stones.
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| − | | style="width: 241px" | [[File:Waterways.png|thumb|left|296px|Waterways|alt=Waterways.png]]
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| − | === Cut-off Drains<br/> ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: A cut-off drain is a graded channel constructed to '''intercept and divert the surface runoff from higher ground/slopes and protect downstream cultivated land or village'''. This safely divert the run-off to a waterway, river, gully, etc. In the dry lands, cut-off drains may be used mainly for the following purposes:<br/>
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| − | #Divert additional water to cultivated plots;<br/>
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| − | #Divert additional water to SS dams and croped areas inside gullies;<br/>
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| − | #Divert additional water into reservoirs for irrigation and/or domestic use.<br/>
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| − | === Graded Soil Bund<br/> ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | | style="width: 560px" | <u>Objectives</u>: Graded soil bund is similar in description with level soil bund. However, graded soil bund is upto a maximum of 1% inclined against the contour so that excess runoff is allowed to drain to the adjoining natural or artificial waterways. It is also possible and necessary to include tied ridges smaller in height within the channel of the terrace. The stored water within the ties can infiltrate into the soil while any above that height is drained out. Graded soil bunds can be made to gradually develop in to benched type terraces through careful maintenance. Any integration of other measures such as stabilization and composting can be applied as it can be applied on level bunds.
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| − | === Graded Fanya Juu<br/> ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: The GFJ with a maximum gradient of 1% discharges excess runoff generated from the inter terrace spaces to the adjoining natural or artificial waterway at a non-erosive velocity. This consequently '''reduces runoff and soil erosion'''. It is also possible to include tied ridges smaller in height within the channel of the terrace. The stored water within the ties can infiltrate into the soil while any excess above that height is drained out. Graded fanya juu bunds can be made to gradually develop in to benched type terraces through maintenance.<br/>
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| − | === Improved Surface Drainage for Increasing Productivity of Vertisols and Soils with Vertic Properties<br/> ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>:<br/>
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| − | #Increased aeration of the soil.
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| − | #Improved soil workability.
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| − | #Earlier sowing date.
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| − | #Higher and more diversified crop production, possibly double cropping.
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| − | #'''Decrease in (peak) runoff flow'''.
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| − | #'''Soil erosion decreased''' due to early vegetative cover.
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| − | #Increased crop and residue yields.
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| − | #Early harvest when there is shortage of food supply and also help farmers benefit from higher prices.
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| − | | style="width: 193px" | [[File:ImprovedSurfaceDrainage.png|thumb|left|315px|Improved Surface Drainage|alt=ImprovedSurfaceDrainage.png]]
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| − | == Physical Soil and Water Conservation<ref name="desta">_</ref> ==
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| − | === Level Soil Bunds ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | | style="width: 506px" | <u>Objectives</u>: The bund '''reduces and stops the velocity of runoff and consequently reduces soil erosion and the steady decline of crop yields'''. They are impermeable structures, unless provided with spillways, intended to retain all rainfall, and hence, increase the moisture retention capacity of the soil profile and water availability to plants, and increase the efficiency of fertilizer applications if any. Through their water retention effect, the bunds may allow some crop yield even in drought years. Soil bunds are entry points for further stabilisation and application of organic residues or compost (especially if applied in the first meters behind the bund where soil is deeper).
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| − | === Stone Bunds ===
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| − | | style="width: 522px" | <u>Objectives</u>: The stone bund '''reduces and stops the velocity of runoff and consequently reduces soil erosion and the steady decline in fertility and crop yields'''. They are semi-permeable structures unless sealed with soil in their upper side. They increase the moisture retention capacity of the soil profile and water availability to plants, and increase the efficiency of fertilizer applications if any. Through their water retention effect the stone bunds may allow some crop yield even in drought years. Stone bunds are entry points for application of organic residues or compost, especially in the first 2-3 meters behind the bund where soil is deeper.
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| − | | style="width: 226px" | [[File:StoneBunds.png|thumb|left|115px|Stone Bunds|alt=StoneBunds.png]]
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| − | === Stone Faced Soil Bunds === | + | == Soil Fertility Management and Biological Soil Conservation<br/> == |
| | + | ► [[Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Soil Fertility Management and Biological Soil Conservation|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Soil Fertility Management and Biological Soil Conservation]] |
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: The stone faced bunds are reinforced soil bunds in one or both their sides. It has the same objectives of soil and stone bunds. Provided they are well constructed stone faced soil bunds<br/>offer strong resistance against runoff. Stone faced bunds are suitable in areas with high stoniness and stable soils, combined with trenches and vegetative stabilization. Suitable for dry areas and combined with other moisture conservation measures like tie-ridging and compost applications above bund or benched area.<br/>
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| − | <br/> | + | == Flood Control and Improved Drainage<br/> == |
| − | | + | ► [[Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Flood Control and Improved Drainage|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Flood Control and Improved Drainage]]<br/> |
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| − | === Level Fanya Juu === | + | == Physical Soil and Water Conservation<br/> == |
| | + | ► [[Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Physical Soil and Water Conservation|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Physical Soil and Water Conservation]] |
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: The FJ '''reduces and stops the velocity of runoff and consequently reduces soil erosion and the steady decline of crop yields'''. They are impermeable structures intended to retain rainfall, and hence, increase s.oil moisture, water availability to plants, and increase the efficiency of fertilizer application if any. Fanya juus bench quicker than soil bunds but are not as efficient in moisture conservation and more prone to breakages/overtopping.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 215px" | [[File:FanyaJuuBund.png|thumb|left|200px|Fanya Juu Bund|alt=FanyaJuuBund.png]]
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| + | == Water Harvesting == |
| | + | ► [[Micro-hydro_Power_(MHP)_Projects_-_Mitigation_and_Intervention_Techniques_-_Water_Harvesting|Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects - Mitigation and Intervention Techniques - Water Harvesting]] |
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| − | === Bench Terracing ===
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| + | ► [[Watershed_Action_Planning_related_to_Micro-hydro_Power_(MHP)_Projects_in_Ethiopia#Training|Watershed Action Planning related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia - Training]] |
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: The terrace in most cases converts a steep slope into a series of steps, with nearly horizonal benches to '''reduce velocity of runoff, reduce the soil erosion and the decline in crop yields'''.<br/>
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| − | === Conservation Tillage using Maresha and Broad Bed and Farrows Maker (BBM) ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: Undisturbed soil that is permanently protected by vegetative cover improves in the manner that occur in the native ecosystems,including maintenance of porous and soft soil layers through litter accumulation, intense biological activity, movement of soil fauna, and root growth. These functions improve efficient water, heat, and gas transfers within the entire soil profile. The presence of crop residues on the soil surface '''minimizes soil evaporation, and in regions of low rainfall can conserve water and increase crop water use efficiency thus improving crop yields'''.<br/>
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: Hillside terraces are physical structures constructed along the contours, generally suitable in steep degraded slopes and shallow soils (although common in other type of soils), suitable for tree planting and rather effective in '''controlling runoff and erosion'''. Common in most parts of Ethiopia, generally in dry areas to support area closure plantation and protect downstream fields.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 192px" | [[File:HillsideTerraces.png|thumb|left|266px|Hillside Terraces|alt=HillsideTerraces.png]]
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| − | === Hillside Terrace with Trenches ===
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| − | | style="width: 518px" | <u>Objectives</u>: HTTs is highly labour intensive - combine both effects of hillsides and trenches constructed immediately above the terrace stone riser, generally suitable for steep slopes (up to 50%) and shallowmedium depth soils (although common in other type of soils). Suitable for tree/shrubs planting and very effective in '''controlling runoff and erosion'''. HHTs ensure protection of downstream fields, and play a significant role in replenishing water tables.
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| − | | style="width: 230px" | [[File:HillsideTerraces and Trenches.png|thumb|left|281px|Hillside Terraces and Trenches|alt=HillsideTerraces and Trenches.png]]
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| − | == Water Harvesting<ref name="desta">_</ref> ==
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| − | === Hand-dug Wells ===
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| − | === Low Cost Water Lifting<br/> ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: They are instrumental in increasing the size of plot and provide the right amount of water to crops at the the right time. The treadle pump, relative to the traditional rope and bucket system will increase irrigated surface areas and reduce irrigation labour time relative to the original irrigated surface area. Thus, resulting in '''increased production'''.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 211px" | [[File:LowCostWaterLifting.png|thumb|left|288px|Low Cost Water Lifting|alt=LowCostWaterLifting.png]]
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| − | | style="width: 447px" | <u>Objectives</u>: Supplementary irrigation to high value crops (horticulture, fruit trees, etc.). Water for livestock for a few months. Micro ponds allow to use surface runoff from small catchment areas within and between homesteads (foot paths, small grazing land areas, rocky areas, etc.). Can also collect water from feeder roads, graded bunds, spillways, etc.). Water collected can be used during the rainy season as supplementary irrigation (during dry spells) or after (1-2 months max) for additional support to horticulture crops, fruit trees, compost, small livestock, beekeeping, etc.
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| − | === Underground Cisterns<br/> ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: Supplementary irrigation to high value crops (horticulture, fruit rees, small livestock, etc.). Water for livestock for a few months. Water for raising seedlings in dry seasons. Microponds allow to use surface runoff from small catchment areas within and between homesteads (foot paths, small grazing land areas, rocky areas, etc.). Water collected can be used during the rainy season as supplementary irrigation (during dry spells) or after (1-2 months max) for additional support to horticulture crops, fruit trees, compost, small livestock, beekeeping, etc.).<br/>
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| − | === Percolation Pit ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: A percolation pit is a structure, constructed on any marginal land with pervious soil, with the following objectives:<br/>
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| − | #'''Recharge the ground water'''<br/>
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| − | #'''Enhance biomass production through improved water availability in the soil profile'''.<br/>
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| − | #'''Reduce runoff and subsequently erosion and land degradation'''.
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| − | === Percolation Pond ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: A percolation pond is a structure, constructed on any marginal land with pervious soil, with the following objectives:<br/>
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| − | #'''Recharge the ground water'''<br/>
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| − | #'''Enhance biomass production through improved water availability in the soil profile'''.<br/>
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| − | #'''Reduce runoff and subsequently erosion and land degradation'''.
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| − | === Farm Pond Construction<br/> ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: To store surface water for use during dry seasons for the purpose of domestic use, human consumption, irrigation or for fish production.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 530px" | <u>Objectives</u>: Proper spring development helps protect the water supply from contamination. The objective of spring development is to collect the flowing underground water to protect it from surface contamination, store it and avail for use.
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| − | === Family Drip Irrigation System<br/> ===
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| − | *Objectives: Increased frequency and uniformity of water application plus reduced competition from weeds results in improved plant growth and yield increases of 30 to 50 percent. The system is instrumental in increasing the size of plot and provide the right amount of water to crops at the the right time. Thus, resulting in '''increased production'''.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 214px" |
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| − | === [[File:DripIrrigation.png|thumb|left|350px|Drip Irrigation|alt=DripIrrigation.png]]<br/> ===
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| − | === Roof Water Harvesting System ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: Roof water harvesting is a system for the collection of rainwater for domestic water supply. Roof catchments are used to collect water for individual household use, in schools and other institutions. Gutters and ground storage tanks are required to collect rainwater from roofs; Roof catchements are made of GI sheet and grass tatched materials; It also provides water for livestock, agricultural and fish-farming use.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 490px" | <u>Objectives</u>: Storage farm dams are mainly to store surface runoff water and to use it when required for various uses such as for human and animal consumption, small scale or supplementary irrigation, fish production.
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| − | === River-bed or Permeable Rack Dams<br/> ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | | style="width: 492px" | Objectives: River bed dams are a floodwater farming techniques where runoff waters are spread in valley bottoms of seasonal riverbeds, large gullies or natural water courses for '''improved crop and forage producdtion''' using a long, low structure, made from loose stone (occasionally some gabion baskets may be used). '''Developing gullies are healed''' at the same time. Occasionally it is required to raise the riverbed in order to guide spate floods into irrigation canals of spate irrigation schemes, or to accumulate river sediments for riverbed cultivation. In such a case, very strong dams are required that can resist powerful spate floods. It is a relatively low cost structure especially designed to resist heavy flooding. The structures are typically long, low dam walls across valleys. The large amount of work involved means that the technique is labor intensive and needs group approach.
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| − | | style="width: 256px" | [[File:Riverbed Dams.png|thumb|left|281px|Riverbed Dams|alt=Riverbed Dams.png]]
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| − | === Small Stone Bunds with Run-on and Run-off Areas<br/> ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | | style="width: 458px" | <u>Objectives</u>: The main objective is to considerably '''increase the biomass production''' of forage grass and legumes pastures and fodder crops and/or allow the introduction of species having higher water requirements in abandoned, marginal and eroded dry areas. The principle of the system and its application is the same as for runoff/runon systems suggested for the cultivated areas. Rainfall multiplier systems for grazing land can also rehabilitate fertility (decay of grass and increased moisture). In this respect, a few years pasture improvement and soil fertility restoration may allow the area to be cropped again. The main difference between this measure and the one described for the cultivated land is that instead of food crops fodder plants are grown. The system is less demanding in terms of size of structures and management of the plots as fodder species require less water than food crops.
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| − | | style="width: 290px" | [[File:Small Stone Bunds.png|thumb|left|300px|Small Stone Bunds|alt=Small Stone Bunds.png]]
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| − | === Narrow Stone Lines Along the Contour ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: Stone lines are semi-permeable or permeable structures, intended to capture some moisture and thus allow the growth of spontaneous grass. By '''slowing down runoff they also decrease erosion''', although not completely. This is a soil and moisture conservation measure suitable for rangelands and degraded grazing lands in dry areas. The measure is less labour intensive and material demanding than small stone faced soil bunds but less efficient. The principle is rainfall multiplier system but the measure is applicable only if stones are available.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 245px" | [[File:NarrowStoneLinesAlongContours.png|thumb|left|350px|Narrow Stone Lines Along Contours|alt=NarrowStoneLinesAlongContours.png]]
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| − | === Stone Faced/Soil or Stone Bunds with Run-off/ Run-on Areas ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | |-
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| − | | style="width: 545px" | <u>Objectives</u>: This is a rainfall multiplier system for reclaiming and rehabilitating marginal areas with low productivity, shallow soils, often affected by surface crusts and low water infiltration rates, with slope ranging between 1 to 5%. Both runoff and runon areas are included within the bunds. The runoff area is intended to serve as a micro catchment to supply additional water into a runon area (cultivated area) to '''increase production levels''' in one portion of the total area or to introduce crops with higher water requirements that otherwise would not grow without additional moisture.
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| − | | style="width: 203px" | [[File:Bunds with run-off areas.png|thumb|left|181px|Bunds with run-off areas|alt=Bunds with run-off areas.png]]
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| − | === Conservation Bench Terraces (s) (CBT(s)) ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: CBTs are constructed on steep slopes to combine soil and water conservation with water harvesting practices. They '''control erosion and retain moisture''' and are suitable for food/ tree crops and are effective in controlling runoff and erosion. They are also water harvesting structures, the riser acts as a catchment. Common in most parts of Ethiopia, (e.g Konso) generally in dry areas. Benching action eases cultivation operation by oxen, however, more appropriate to use.<br/>
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| − | | style="width: 212px" | [[File:ConservationBenchTerraces.png|thumb|left|300px|Conservation BenchTerraces|alt=ConservationBenchTerraces.png]]
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| − | === Tie Ridge (s) ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | | style="width: 484px" | <u>Objectives</u>: Tie ridges are small rectangular series of basins formed withing the furrow of cultivated fields mainly to '''increase surface storage and to allow more time for rainfall to infiltrate the soil'''. Making tied ridges manually is time and labor consuming.
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| − | | style="width: 264px" | [[File:TieRidge.png|thumb|left|275px|Tie Ridge|alt=TieRidge.png]]
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| − | === The Zai and Planting Pit System ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%"
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| − | | style="width: 438px" | <u>Objectives</u>: Zai pits are systems of small pits dug along approximate contours allows the cultivation of crops on degraded lands. The zaï pits '''restore degraded lands (crusted, hard, compacted and poorly structured soils'''), thus increasing the land available for cultivation. It is a simple technique that, amongst others, landless or oxless can practice because it requires only manual labour.
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| − | | style="width: 310px" | [[File:Zai and Planting Pits.png|thumb|left|500px|Zai and Planting Pits|alt=Zai and Planting Pits.png]]
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| − | === Large Half Moons ===
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 762px"
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| − | | style="width: 496px" | <u>Objectives</u>: The measure is a rainfall multiplier system that allow cultivation of crops in low rainfall areas. It is applied in areas with sandy and sandy loamy soils affected by low fertility levels and thin surface crusts that inhibit infiltration and increase runoff. Large half moons are suitable structures to enable cultivation of drought resistant crops in areas with very low rainfall. They '''intercept all runoff and stop erosion'''. It is also a measure suitable for rangelands and degraded grazing lands in dry areas (forage crops).
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| − | | style="width: 252px" | [[File:HalfMoons.png|thumb|left|281px|Half Moons|alt=HalfMoons.png]]
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| − | === Division Weir Design and Construction ===
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| − | *<u>Objectives</u>: To divert stream flow for use during dry seasons for the purpose of small scale irrigation and for any other supplementary irrigation.<br/>
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| − | *For more information see [http://agriwaterpedia.info/wiki/Water_harvesting agriwaterpedia.info - Water Harvesting]<br/>
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| − | == [[Watershed Action Planning related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia#Training|Education and Training]]<br/> ==
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| | | | |
| | == Income Generating Measures<br/> == | | == Income Generating Measures<br/> == |
| − | <br/>
| + | ... |
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| + | == Participatory Approach == |
| | + | ► [[Watershed_Planning_Team_related_to_Micro-hydro_Power_(MHP)_Projects_in_Ethiopia#Participatory_Approach|Watershed Planning Team related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia - Participatory Approach]] |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| − | == [[Watershed Planning Team related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia#Participatory Approach|Participatory Approach]] ==
| |
| | | | |
| − | == How Interventions Can Improve the Environmental Condition of the Catchment ==
| |
| − | '''Box 1''': shows three examples of how (rather simple) interventions can improve the environmental condition of the catchment. A more detailed list of mitigation and intervention techniques and the respective application can be found in DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 1: ''Community Based Participatory Watershed Development. '' Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, pages 69 – 165 and DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 2: ''Community Based Participatory Watershed Development: Annex''. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, pages 43 - 48.<br/>
| |
| | | | |
| − | <br/>
| + | == Improving the Environmental Condition of the Catchment == |
| | + | Adetailed list of mitigation and intervention techniques and the respective application can be found in |
| | | | |
| − | <br/>
| + | ► DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 1: ''Community Based Participatory Watershed Development. '' Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, pages 69 – 165 |
| | | | |
| − | <br/>
| + | ► DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 2: ''Community Based Participatory Watershed Development: Annex''. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, pages 43 - 48. |
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| | === Fenced vs. Unfenced Springs / Wetlands<br/> === | | === Fenced vs. Unfenced Springs / Wetlands<br/> === |
| | Springs and wetlands not only guarantee the discharge in dry season, also they have a great retention capacity during and after rains. Springs are sensitive areas that react to disturbances easily. Protection of springs and wetlands is thus crucial for the sustainable use of the MHP projects. Protection measurements might include fencing (to protect the areas from [[Causes and Features of Watershed Degradation related to MHP Projects#Changes in Soil Texture and Cattle Step|cattle step]] and thus soil compaction), protection of [[Causes and Features of Watershed Degradation related to MHP Projects#Deforestation and Destruction of Natural Vegetation|natural vegetation]] around the springs, protection of a natural humus layer (in order to sustain sufficient infiltration and thus groundwater recharge). Furthermore fencing can help to improve the water quality, since pollution due to agricultural and pastoral use can be prevented<ref>HELVETAS (2005): Helvetas Wasser Fact Sheet: Quellen und Quellschutz.</ref>. | | Springs and wetlands not only guarantee the discharge in dry season, also they have a great retention capacity during and after rains. Springs are sensitive areas that react to disturbances easily. Protection of springs and wetlands is thus crucial for the sustainable use of the MHP projects. Protection measurements might include fencing (to protect the areas from [[Causes and Features of Watershed Degradation related to MHP Projects#Changes in Soil Texture and Cattle Step|cattle step]] and thus soil compaction), protection of [[Causes and Features of Watershed Degradation related to MHP Projects#Deforestation and Destruction of Natural Vegetation|natural vegetation]] around the springs, protection of a natural humus layer (in order to sustain sufficient infiltration and thus groundwater recharge). Furthermore fencing can help to improve the water quality, since pollution due to agricultural and pastoral use can be prevented<ref>HELVETAS (2005): Helvetas Wasser Fact Sheet: Quellen und Quellschutz.</ref>. |
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| | === Buffered vs. Unbuffered Riverbanks / Wetlands<br/> === | | === Buffered vs. Unbuffered Riverbanks / Wetlands<br/> === |
| | A buffer typically consists of a band of vegetation along a wetland or water body, preferably natural habitat, but including previously altered, stable native or introduced species. A buffer can perform a variety of functions, which can improve the environmental condition of a watershed, such as sediment removal and erosion control, runoff reduction through infiltration, reduction of human impacts by limiting easy access as well as barrier to invasion of exotic species<ref>GALE, J.A. (unknown): Watershedss Wetland Management. http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/wetlands/manage.html#prot</ref>. Thus buffers can benefit the sustainable use of the MHP and should hence be established and/or protected. | | A buffer typically consists of a band of vegetation along a wetland or water body, preferably natural habitat, but including previously altered, stable native or introduced species. A buffer can perform a variety of functions, which can improve the environmental condition of a watershed, such as sediment removal and erosion control, runoff reduction through infiltration, reduction of human impacts by limiting easy access as well as barrier to invasion of exotic species<ref>GALE, J.A. (unknown): Watershedss Wetland Management. http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/wetlands/manage.html#prot</ref>. Thus buffers can benefit the sustainable use of the MHP and should hence be established and/or protected. |
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| | === <br/>Eucalyptus vs. Indigenous Plants<br/> === | | === <br/>Eucalyptus vs. Indigenous Plants<br/> === |
| | Eucalyptus easily adapts to any soil and water condition, it is characterized by fast growth, high survival, long roots and hard leafs. Those features make it economically very beneficial. When it comes to watershed management, its negatives sides should be considered though: it does not only take a lot of nutrients and water and is hence a high competition to companion plants and decreases biodiversity, also soil erosion can occur which can negatively affect the [[Causes and Features of Watershed Degradation related to MHP Projects#Box 1|MHP’s performance]]. FAO thus recommends that large scale monocultures of eucalyptus plantations be excluded from watersheds, aforestation projects should avoid monocultures and the use of eucalyptus. The only way to include eucalyptus is to adopt it in agroforestry systems, but the proportion of each species should be planned out carefully<ref>SUNGSUMARN, K. (1993): Why Eucalyptus is Not Adopted for Agroforestry. In: Kashio, M. et al. (Hrsg.)(1996): Reports Submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus - Volume II. Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.</ref>. | | Eucalyptus easily adapts to any soil and water condition, it is characterized by fast growth, high survival, long roots and hard leafs. Those features make it economically very beneficial. When it comes to watershed management, its negatives sides should be considered though: it does not only take a lot of nutrients and water and is hence a high competition to companion plants and decreases biodiversity, also soil erosion can occur which can negatively affect the [[Causes and Features of Watershed Degradation related to MHP Projects#Box 1|MHP’s performance]]. FAO thus recommends that large scale monocultures of eucalyptus plantations be excluded from watersheds, aforestation projects should avoid monocultures and the use of eucalyptus. The only way to include eucalyptus is to adopt it in agroforestry systems, but the proportion of each species should be planned out carefully<ref>SUNGSUMARN, K. (1993): Why Eucalyptus is Not Adopted for Agroforestry. In: Kashio, M. et al. (Hrsg.)(1996): Reports Submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus - Volume II. Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.</ref>. |
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| | *[[Environment Assessment Related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia|Environment Assessment Related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia]] | | *[[Environment Assessment Related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia|Environment Assessment Related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects in Ethiopia]] |
| | *[[Environment Assessment and Watershed Action Planning Related to Micro Hydro Power Projects (MHPs)|Environment Assessment and Watershed Action Planning Related to Micro Hydro Power Projects (MHPs)]] | | *[[Environment Assessment and Watershed Action Planning Related to Micro Hydro Power Projects (MHPs)|Environment Assessment and Watershed Action Planning Related to Micro Hydro Power Projects (MHPs)]] |
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| | <references /><br/> | | <references /><br/> |
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| | + | [[Category:Micro_Hydro]] |
| | [[Category:Hydro]] | | [[Category:Hydro]] |
| − | [[Category:Micro_Hydro]]
| |
