National Approaches to Electrification – Technology - Revision history

Johanna at 14:09, 30 July 2018

2018-07-30T14:09:29Z

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Johanna von Behaim at 18:23, 17 July 2018

2018-07-17T18:23:28Z

Johanna von Behaim at 13:03, 16 July 2018

2018-07-16T13:03:36Z

Johanna von Behaim at 13:02, 16 July 2018

2018-07-16T13:02:26Z

Johanna von Behaim at 12:59, 16 July 2018

2018-07-16T12:59:25Z

Johanna von Behaim at 12:56, 16 July 2018

2018-07-16T12:56:14Z

Johanna von Behaim at 12:44, 16 July 2018

2018-07-16T12:44:15Z

Johanna von Behaim at 12:41, 16 July 2018

2018-07-16T12:41:54Z

Johanna von Behaim at 15:26, 9 July 2018

2018-07-09T15:26:59Z

Johanna von Behaim at 11:46, 27 June 2018

2018-06-27T11:46:12Z

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 [[File:Back to NAE Overview Page.png|center|800px|NAE Overview Page|alt=NAE Overview Page|link=National Approaches to Electrification – Review of Options]]
 <p style="text-align: center;"></p>
-{{Template:NAE Technology Page Banner}}
+{{Template:NAE Technology Page Banner}}<br/>
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 <p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color:#006700ff;">'''Technology:&nbsp;The physical means by which electricity is generated, transmitted and distributed'''</span></p>
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-The primary financing for grid-connected mini-grids will generally align with the delivery model, with publically-owned mini-grids using public finance and privately owned mini-grids drawing on private finance. However, where incomes are lower or system costs higher, some form of public-private partnership is likely to be needed with public funding (eg through grants and subsidies) making electricity from grid-connected mini-grids affordable to users and the mini-grid systems economically sustainable.<br/>
+The primary [[Portal:Financing_and_Funding|financing]]&nbsp;for grid-connected mini-grids will generally align with the delivery model, with publically-owned mini-grids using public finance and privately owned mini-grids drawing on private finance. However, where incomes are lower or system costs higher, some form of public-private partnership is likely to be needed with public funding (eg through grants and subsidies) making electricity from grid-connected mini-grids affordable to users and the mini-grid systems economically sustainable.<br/>
 <span style="font-size: 13.6px;">User charges are the other main source of funding with connection charges and ongoing tariffs are used to contribute to investment, cover ongoing operating costs and support repayment and return on investment. As with any system supplying multiple users there is likely to be some element of cross-subsidy between users connected to any individual mini-grid system. Cross-subsidy between grid-connected mini-grids or between the main grid and grid-connected systems may be appropriate, particularly if a uniform tariff is applied.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>
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 Under any regulatory regime a key question for private mini-grid investors will be what happens when the main grid arrives? Grid extension into a mini-grid concession area within the concession period may be prohibited by the terms of the concession, or there may be explicit provision for compensation and transfer of assets to grid ownership. mini-grid licensees have less protection from grid extension than concessionaires, but even where there is no formal concession it is often beneficial to establish a compensation regime in the event of grid extension, to encourage private mini-grid investment in the interim.
-Where mini-grids are delivered through a public model with purely public finance, the legal basis will generally be less critical as public financiers are less likely to be concerned about recovery of and return on investment through future revenues.
+Where mini-grids are delivered through a public model with purely public [[Portal:Financing_and_Funding|finance]], the legal basis will generally be less critical as public financiers are less likely to be concerned about recovery of and return on investment through future revenues.
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-Financing for isolated mini-grids will generally align with the delivery model, with publically-owned mini-grids using public finance and privately owned mini-grids drawing on private finance. However, where incomes are lower or system costs higher, some form of public-private partnership is likely to be needed with public funding (eg through grants and subsidies) making electricity from mini-grids affordable to users and the mini-grid systems economically sustainable.
+[[Portal:Financing_and_Funding|Financing]]&nbsp;for isolated mini-grids will generally align with the delivery model, with publically-owned mini-grids using public finance and privately owned mini-grids drawing on private finance. However, where incomes are lower or system costs higher, some form of public-private partnership is likely to be needed with public funding (eg through grants and subsidies) making electricity from mini-grids affordable to users and the mini-grid systems economically sustainable.
 User charges are the other main source of funding with connection charges and ongoing tariffs are used to contribute to investment, cover ongoing operating costs and support repayment and return on investment. As with any system supplying multiple users, there is likely to be some element of cross-subsidy between users connected to any individual mini-grid system. Cross-subsidy between isolated mini-grids or between the main grid and mini-grid systems may be appropriate, particularly if a uniform tariff is applied.
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-Standalone systems are most frequently supplied to users through a purely private-sector chain of manufacturers, importers, distributors and retailers. In a number of cases (such as shown in the [[NAE Case Study: Bangladesh, IDCOL Solar Home Systems|NAE Case Study of the IDCOL programme in Bangladesh]]), public-private partnership models have been used. In general this has been through use of public finance (grants, subsidies and loans) to enhance affordability and support market growth, though there could be benefits in certain circumstances for government energy agencies to become directly involved in the standalone system market, by forming a joint entity to supply systems or by taking on one of the roles along the value chain (eg providing a distribution service for all system providers). More rarely a purely public model is used to provide standalone systems to users, for example where the grid company provides standalone systems to those it is not economic to connect to the grid (eg in [[NAE Case Study: South Africa, Integrated National Electrification|NAE Case Study South Africa]]).&nbsp;<br/>
+Standalone systems are most frequently supplied to users through a purely private-sector chain of manufacturers, importers, distributors and retailers. In a number of cases (such as shown in the [[NAE Case Study: Bangladesh, IDCOL Solar Home Systems|NAE Case Study of the IDCOL programme in Bangladesh]]), public-private partnership models have been used. In general this has been through use of public [[Portal:Financing_and_Funding|finance]]&nbsp;(grants, subsidies and loans) to enhance affordability and support market growth, though there could be benefits in certain circumstances for government energy agencies to become directly involved in the standalone system market, by forming a joint entity to supply systems or by taking on one of the roles along the value chain (eg providing a distribution service for all system providers). More rarely a purely public model is used to provide standalone systems to users, for example where the grid company provides standalone systems to those it is not economic to connect to the grid (eg in [[NAE Case Study: South Africa, Integrated National Electrification|NAE Case Study South Africa]]).&nbsp;<br/>
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-Though provision of standalone systems requires less capital investment than investment in grid or mini-grid systems, those establishing standalone system business nevertheless require capital for business development and working capital to fund the period (typically three months or more) between purchase/ import of the product by the business and sale to the end-user. Because standalone systems are often imported, this also brings a requirement for access to foreign capital. Where standalone systems are sold to users, it is to these users that much of the requirement for capital investment falls. This need for up-front user finance has formed one of the most substantial barriers to growth of markets for standalone systems (even where these systems are demonstrably an economic option for the user in the longer term). This barrier can be alleviated through micro-finance and similar programmes, and has also driven the growth of pay-as-you-go arrangements whereby the need for up-front finance is transferred to the supplier (though users remain the ultimate source of finance through their payments for electricity).&nbsp; Though most standalone system providers are private companies, many have struggled to access private finance, reflecting private financiers reluctance to invest in start-up companies without established track-records seeking to grow a new market. Instead many have relied on finance from donors and social funders. This has been one of the main constraints on standalone system market growth.&nbsp; Public finance, through grants, subsidies and concessionary loans (to both suppliers and users) and tax exemptions (eg VAT and import duty exemptions) have been used to make standalone systems more affordable to users.&nbsp;<br/>
+Though provision of standalone systems requires less capital investment than investment in grid or mini-grid systems, those establishing standalone system business nevertheless require capital for business development and working capital to fund the period (typically three months or more) between purchase/ import of the product by the business and sale to the end-user. Because standalone systems are often imported, this also brings a requirement for access to foreign capital. Where standalone systems are sold to users, it is to these users that much of the requirement for capital investment falls. This need for up-front user [[Portal:Financing_and_Funding|finance]]&nbsp;has formed one of the most substantial barriers to growth of markets for standalone systems (even where these systems are demonstrably an economic option for the user in the longer term). This barrier can be alleviated through micro-finance and similar programmes, and has also driven the growth of pay-as-you-go arrangements whereby the need for up-front finance is transferred to the supplier (though users remain the ultimate source of finance through their payments for electricity).&nbsp; Though most standalone system providers are private companies, many have struggled to access private finance, reflecting private financiers reluctance to invest in start-up companies without established track-records seeking to grow a new market. Instead many have relied on finance from donors and social funders. This has been one of the main constraints on standalone system market growth.&nbsp; Public finance, through grants, subsidies and concessionary loans (to both suppliers and users) and tax exemptions (eg VAT and import duty exemptions) have been used to make standalone systems more affordable to users.&nbsp;<br/>
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-Clear national policies and targets and availability of market information have been identified as key factors enabling standalone system providers to assess market scale and so encourage market entry. Regulatory reform, particularly in the finance sector to enable pay-as-you-go arrangements is also seen as vital, as is establishment and enforcement of quality standards to give consumers confidence in products. Exemption from taxes and duties (particularly where this is needed to create a level playing field with other forms of energy access) can catalyse market development, and user awareness raising and development of a workforce with the technical and business skills need to support business growth are also important (and beyond the capacity of individual standalone system businesses) to support its growth.
+Clear national policies and targets and availability of market information have been identified as key factors enabling standalone system providers to assess market scale and so encourage market entry. Regulatory reform, particularly in the [[Portal:Financing_and_Funding|finance]]&nbsp;sector to enable pay-as-you-go arrangements is also seen as vital, as is establishment and enforcement of quality standards to give consumers confidence in products. Exemption from taxes and duties (particularly where this is needed to create a level playing field with other forms of energy access) can catalyse market development, and user awareness raising and development of a workforce with the technical and business skills need to support business growth are also important (and beyond the capacity of individual standalone system businesses) to support its growth.
 |}
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 {{NAE Acknowledgements}}
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+<p style="text-align: center;"></p>
 {{Template:NAE Technology Page Banner}}
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 <p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color:#006700ff;">'''Technology:&nbsp;The physical means by which electricity is generated, transmitted and distributed'''</span></p>
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 <p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color:#006700ff;">'''Technology:&nbsp;The physical means by which electricity is generated, transmitted and distributed'''</span></p>
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 {{NAE Acknowledgements}}
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 [[File:Back to NAE Overview Page.png|center|800px|NAE Overview Page|alt=NAE Overview Page|link=National Approaches to Electrification – Review of Options]]
-<p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color:#003399;">'''<u>Category Dashboard:</u>'''{{NAE Technology Page Banner}}</span></p>
+<p style="text-align: center;"><br/></p>
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 <p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color:#006700ff;">'''Technology:&nbsp;The physical means by which electricity is generated, transmitted and distributed'''</span></p>
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 '''<span><span>An electricity system connected to, but owned and/or separately managed from, the main grid system which supplies electricity to users within a local area.</span></span>'''
-Grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems exist at a wide range of scales from those supplying a few households to systems covering entire districts or regions. The term “grid-connected mini-grid” is most frequently used to refer to systems built around their own, usually small-scale (diesel, [[Portal:Bioenergy|bioenergy]], [[Portal:Solid_Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydro]], [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|wind]]or hybrid) generation and connected to the [[Portal:Grid|grid]]to allow import and export of electricity. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. A “distribution system” generally refers to a larger system designed primarily to distribute electricity from the main grid system to users. However distribution systems often also include their own generation and there is no clear distinction between grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems (and the term “grid-connected mini-grid” is used to refer to both in the description below). At the larger end of the scale, distribution systems may be closely integrated into the main grid system, and the distinction between electrification through grid extension and through grid-connected distribution system expansion is one of ownership and management rather than technology.<br/>Distribution systems generally use lower voltages than for transmission, but the specific boundary between the two varies from country to country. Separate ownership and management may allow grid-connected mini-grids to use lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, but grid system technical requirements (and standards) will generally prevent the lowest capacity “skinny-grids” from becoming grid-connected.<br/>
+Grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems exist at a wide range of scales from those supplying a few households to systems covering entire districts or regions. The term “grid-connected mini-grid” is most frequently used to refer to systems built around their own, usually small-scale (diesel, [[Portal:Bioenergy|bioenergy]], [[Portal:Solid Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydro]], [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|windor]] hybrid) generation and connected to the [[Portal:Grid|gridto]] allow import and export of electricity. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. A “distribution system” generally refers to a larger system designed primarily to distribute electricity from the main grid system to users. However distribution systems often also include their own generation and there is no clear distinction between grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems (and the term “grid-connected mini-grid” is used to refer to both in the description below). At the larger end of the scale, distribution systems may be closely integrated into the main grid system, and the distinction between electrification through grid extension and through grid-connected distribution system expansion is one of ownership and management rather than technology.<br/>Distribution systems generally use lower voltages than for transmission, but the specific boundary between the two varies from country to country. Separate ownership and management may allow grid-connected mini-grids to use lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, but grid system technical requirements (and standards) will generally prevent the lowest capacity “skinny-grids” from becoming grid-connected.<br/>
 |}
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 '''<span><span>A system for generation and distribution of electricity to multiple users which is not connected to the main grid system.</span></span>'''
-Mini-grids exist at a wide range of scales, from those supplying a few households to systems covering several communities. Isolated [[Portal:Mini-grid|mini-grids]] rely on one or more local, usually small-scale (diesel, [[Portal:Bioenergy|bioenergy]], [[Portal:Solid_Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydro]], [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|wind]]or hybrid), generating plants and must balance demand and generation at all times. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. Being separated from the grid system, isolated mini-grids can used lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, and may be designed to provide anything from lighting alone (a “skinny grid”) to a full grid-equivalent electricity service.&nbsp;<br/>
+Mini-grids exist at a wide range of scales, from those supplying a few households to systems covering several communities. Isolated [[Portal:Mini-grid|mini-grids]] rely on one or more local, usually small-scale (diesel, [[Portal:Bioenergy|bioenergy]], [[Portal:Solid Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydro]], [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|windor]] hybrid), generating plants and must balance demand and generation at all times. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. Being separated from the grid system, isolated mini-grids can used lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, and may be designed to provide anything from lighting alone (a “skinny grid”) to a full grid-equivalent electricity service.&nbsp;<br/>
 |}
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 '''<span><span>A system for generating and supplying electricity to a single user (separate from any distribution system).</span></span>'''<br/>
-'''<span><span></span></span>'''Standalone systems may use any locally available source of energy (including [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|wind]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydropower]], [[Portal:Biogas|biogas]], [[Portal:Solid_Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Biofuel|biofuels]]or diesel generators). While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. They may serve a single purpose (such as lighting or irrigation water-pumping) or be designed to meet all the electricity needs of the user. They range in size from solar lanterns, through small household systems to larger installations serving industrial enterprises (though for the purposes of this review the focus is on systems suitable for households, community facilities and SMEs).<br/>
+'''<span><span></span></span>'''Standalone systems may use any locally available source of energy (including [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|wind]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydropower]], [[Portal:Biogas|biogas]], [[Portal:Solid Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Biofuel|biofuelsor]] diesel generators). While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. They may serve a single purpose (such as lighting or irrigation water-pumping) or be designed to meet all the electricity needs of the user. They range in size from solar lanterns, through small household systems to larger installations serving industrial enterprises (though for the purposes of this review the focus is on systems suitable for households, community facilities and SMEs).<br/>
 |}
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 | style="width: 10px; background-color: rgb(171, 211, 141);" | <br/>
+|
-Standalone systems encompass a wide range of technologies from solar lanterns, to [[Solar_Home_Systems_(SHS)|solar home system]]s and [[Solar-Powered_Pumps_for_Improved_Irrigation|pumps]], to larger scale diesel, hydro, biomass and wind-powered generators. Because they lack the economies of scale provided by grid (or even mini-grid) systems, the cost per unit of electricity from standalone systems is generally higher than from a grid (or mini-grid) connection. However in areas which are remote from the grid system and are sparsely populated (or lack a substantial energy source), standalone systems may provide the lowest cost option for electricity supply because they avoid the cost of distribution infrastructure. In addition, while the cost per unit of electricity may be relatively high, for low-demand users (eg those only looking for lighting and phone charging) they can still offer the most economic solution. Standalone solutions are also used by those who want back-up for an unreliable grid or mini-grid supply, or who want independence from the grid system.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+Standalone systems encompass a wide range of technologies from solar lanterns, to [[Solar Home Systems (SHS)|solar home systems]] and [[Solar-Powered Pumps for Improved Irrigation|pumps]], to larger scale diesel, hydro, biomass and wind-powered generators. Because they lack the economies of scale provided by grid (or even mini-grid) systems, the cost per unit of electricity from standalone systems is generally higher than from a grid (or mini-grid) connection. However in areas which are remote from the grid system and are sparsely populated (or lack a substantial energy source), standalone systems may provide the lowest cost option for electricity supply because they avoid the cost of distribution infrastructure. In addition, while the cost per unit of electricity may be relatively high, for low-demand users (eg those only looking for lighting and phone charging) they can still offer the most economic solution. Standalone solutions are also used by those who want back-up for an unreliable grid or mini-grid supply, or who want independence from the grid system.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-In line with the wide range of technologies encompassed by standalone systems, they can be designed to provide any level of electricity. In general, however, the differential in cost between grid/mini-grid and standalone systems increases as the level of supply goes up (particularly for [[Basic_Energy_Services_-_Stand_Alone_/_Off_grid_Energy_Systems|solar standalone systems]]), and standalone household systems therefore most often provide only Tier 1 (or even lower) access and rarely provide more than Tier 2-3 access, though systems for enterprises and community facilities may be larger and provide a higher level of access (with larger systems often being supported by hydro or fuel rather than solar generation).&nbsp;&nbsp;
+In line with the wide range of technologies encompassed by standalone systems, they can be designed to provide any level of electricity. In general, however, the differential in cost between grid/mini-grid and standalone systems increases as the level of supply goes up (particularly for [[Basic Energy Services - Stand Alone / Off grid Energy Systems|solar standalone systems]]), and standalone household systems therefore most often provide only Tier 1 (or even lower) access and rarely provide more than Tier 2-3 access, though systems for enterprises and community facilities may be larger and provide a higher level of access (with larger systems often being supported by hydro or fuel rather than solar generation).&nbsp;&nbsp;
 |}
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 {{NAE Acknowledgements}}
 [[Category:NAE]]

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 '''<span>Establishment and extension to new users of a system that connects electricity generation plants to consumers via a transmission and distribution network across the country.</span>'''
-<span>Grid systems draw on a variety of generation sources, from nuclear and hydro-power to coal, oil and combined-cycle gas turbines and solar- and wind-power. </span><span>Each </span><span>form of generation has different characteristics in terms of flexibility, reliability and costs. A mix of generation sources is required to match generation to demand, with over-reliance on any one form of generation risking lengthy outages (for example, a drought can significantly affect a predominantly hydro-powered grid system). </span><span>Technology advances, combined </span><span>with </span><span>environmental concerns, have led to an increasing focus over recent years on Renewable Energy based generation. </span><span>Transmission and distribution system designs also vary, with low-cost distribution technologies such as Single Wire Earth return (SWER) being used to reduce costs in remote areas.</span><br/>
+<span>Grid systems draw on a variety of generation sources, from nuclear and hydro-power to coal, oil and combined-cycle gas turbines and [[Portal:Solar|solar]]- and [[Portal:Wind|wind]]-power. </span><span>Each </span><span>form of generation has different characteristics in terms of flexibility, reliability and costs. A mix of generation sources is required to match generation to demand, with over-reliance on any one form of generation risking lengthy outages (for example, a drought can significantly affect a predominantly hydro-powered grid system). </span><span>Technology advances, combined </span><span>with </span><span>environmental concerns, have led to an increasing focus over recent years on Renewable Energy based generation. </span><span>Transmission and distribution system designs also vary, with low-cost distribution technologies such as Single Wire Earth return (SWER) being used to reduce costs in remote areas.</span><br/>
 |}
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 '''<span><span>An electricity system connected to, but owned and/or separately managed from, the main grid system which supplies electricity to users within a local area.</span></span>'''
-Grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems exist at a wide range of scales from those supplying a few households to systems covering entire districts or regions. The term “grid-connected mini-grid” is most frequently used to refer to systems built around their own, usually small-scale (diesel, bioenergy, biomass, hydro, solar, wind or hybrid) generation and connected to the grid to allow import and export of electricity. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. A “distribution system” generally refers to a larger system designed primarily to distribute electricity from the main grid system to users. However distribution systems often also include their own generation and there is no clear distinction between grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems (and the term “grid-connected mini-grid” is used to refer to both in the description below). At the larger end of the scale, distribution systems may be closely integrated into the main grid system, and the distinction between electrification through grid extension and through grid-connected distribution system expansion is one of ownership and management rather than technology.<br/>Distribution systems generally use lower voltages than for transmission, but the specific boundary between the two varies from country to country. Separate ownership and management may allow grid-connected mini-grids to use lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, but grid system technical requirements (and standards) will generally prevent the lowest capacity “skinny-grids” from becoming grid-connected.<br/>
+Grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems exist at a wide range of scales from those supplying a few households to systems covering entire districts or regions. The term “grid-connected mini-grid” is most frequently used to refer to systems built around their own, usually small-scale (diesel, [[Portal:Bioenergy|bioenergy]], [[Portal:Solid_Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydro]], [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|wind]]or hybrid) generation and connected to the [[Portal:Grid|grid]]to allow import and export of electricity. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. A “distribution system” generally refers to a larger system designed primarily to distribute electricity from the main grid system to users. However distribution systems often also include their own generation and there is no clear distinction between grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems (and the term “grid-connected mini-grid” is used to refer to both in the description below). At the larger end of the scale, distribution systems may be closely integrated into the main grid system, and the distinction between electrification through grid extension and through grid-connected distribution system expansion is one of ownership and management rather than technology.<br/>Distribution systems generally use lower voltages than for transmission, but the specific boundary between the two varies from country to country. Separate ownership and management may allow grid-connected mini-grids to use lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, but grid system technical requirements (and standards) will generally prevent the lowest capacity “skinny-grids” from becoming grid-connected.<br/>
 |}
@@ Line 288: / Line 288: @@
 '''<span><span>A system for generation and distribution of electricity to multiple users which is not connected to the main grid system.</span></span>'''
-Mini-grids exist at a wide range of scales, from those supplying a few households to systems covering several communities. Isolated mini-grids rely on one or more local, usually small-scale (diesel, bioenergy, biomass, hydro, solar, wind or hybrid), generating plants and must balance demand and generation at all times. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. Being separated from the grid system, isolated mini-grids can used lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, and may be designed to provide anything from lighting alone (a “skinny grid”) to a full grid-equivalent electricity service.&nbsp;<br/>
+Mini-grids exist at a wide range of scales, from those supplying a few households to systems covering several communities. Isolated [[Portal:Mini-grid|mini-grids]] rely on one or more local, usually small-scale (diesel, [[Portal:Bioenergy|bioenergy]], [[Portal:Solid_Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydro]], [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|wind]]or hybrid), generating plants and must balance demand and generation at all times. While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. Being separated from the grid system, isolated mini-grids can used lower voltages and lower-cost technologies than the main grid, and may be designed to provide anything from lighting alone (a “skinny grid”) to a full grid-equivalent electricity service.&nbsp;<br/>
 |}
@@ Line 430: / Line 430: @@
 '''<span><span>A system for generating and supplying electricity to a single user (separate from any distribution system).</span></span>'''<br/>
-'''<span><span></span></span>'''Standalone systems may use any locally available source of energy (including solar, wind, hydropower, biogas, biomass, biofuels or diesel generators). While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. They may serve a single purpose (such as lighting or irrigation water-pumping) or be designed to meet all the electricity needs of the user. They range in size from solar lanterns, through small household systems to larger installations serving industrial enterprises (though for the purposes of this review the focus is on systems suitable for households, community facilities and SMEs).<br/>
+'''<span><span></span></span>'''Standalone systems may use any locally available source of energy (including [[Portal:Solar|solar]], [[Portal:Wind|wind]], [[Portal:Hydro|hydropower]], [[Portal:Biogas|biogas]], [[Portal:Solid_Biomass|biomass]], [[Portal:Biofuel|biofuels]]or diesel generators). While these include fossil-fuel based generation, technology advances combined with environmental concerns mean that policy-makers are increasingly focussing on encouraging Renewable Energy based generation. They may serve a single purpose (such as lighting or irrigation water-pumping) or be designed to meet all the electricity needs of the user. They range in size from solar lanterns, through small household systems to larger installations serving industrial enterprises (though for the purposes of this review the focus is on systems suitable for households, community facilities and SMEs).<br/>
 |}
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-Standalone systems encompass a wide range of technologies from solar lanterns, to solar home systems and pumps, to larger scale diesel, hydro, biomass and wind-powered generators. Because they lack the economies of scale provided by grid (or even mini-grid) systems, the cost per unit of electricity from standalone systems is generally higher than from a grid (or mini-grid) connection. However in areas which are remote from the grid system and are sparsely populated (or lack a substantial energy source), standalone systems may provide the lowest cost option for electricity supply because they avoid the cost of distribution infrastructure. In addition, while the cost per unit of electricity may be relatively high, for low-demand users (eg those only looking for lighting and phone charging) they can still offer the most economic solution. Standalone solutions are also used by those who want back-up for an unreliable grid or mini-grid supply, or who want independence from the grid system.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+Standalone systems encompass a wide range of technologies from solar lanterns, to [[Solar_Home_Systems_(SHS)|solar home system]]s and [[Solar-Powered_Pumps_for_Improved_Irrigation|pumps]], to larger scale diesel, hydro, biomass and wind-powered generators. Because they lack the economies of scale provided by grid (or even mini-grid) systems, the cost per unit of electricity from standalone systems is generally higher than from a grid (or mini-grid) connection. However in areas which are remote from the grid system and are sparsely populated (or lack a substantial energy source), standalone systems may provide the lowest cost option for electricity supply because they avoid the cost of distribution infrastructure. In addition, while the cost per unit of electricity may be relatively high, for low-demand users (eg those only looking for lighting and phone charging) they can still offer the most economic solution. Standalone solutions are also used by those who want back-up for an unreliable grid or mini-grid supply, or who want independence from the grid system.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-In line with the wide range of technologies encompassed by standalone systems, they can be designed to provide any level of electricity. In general, however, the differential in cost between grid/mini-grid and standalone systems increases as the level of supply goes up (particularly for solar standalone systems), and standalone household systems therefore most often provide only Tier 1 (or even lower) access and rarely provide more than Tier 2-3 access, though systems for enterprises and community facilities may be larger and provide a higher level of access (with larger systems often being supported by hydro or fuel rather than solar generation).&nbsp;&nbsp;
+In line with the wide range of technologies encompassed by standalone systems, they can be designed to provide any level of electricity. In general, however, the differential in cost between grid/mini-grid and standalone systems increases as the level of supply goes up (particularly for [[Basic_Energy_Services_-_Stand_Alone_/_Off_grid_Energy_Systems|solar standalone systems]]), and standalone household systems therefore most often provide only Tier 1 (or even lower) access and rarely provide more than Tier 2-3 access, though systems for enterprises and community facilities may be larger and provide a higher level of access (with larger systems often being supported by hydro or fuel rather than solar generation).&nbsp;&nbsp;
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 <p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color:#006700ff;">'''Technology:&nbsp;The physical means by which electricity is generated, transmitted and distributed'''</span></p>
-Grid-connected mini-grids and distribution systems&nbsp; share characteristics with both Grid Extension and&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Isolated Mini-grids – They are linked to the grid system and are able to import electricity from and export electricity to it, so technically they have more in common with Grid Extension. However, in that they are owned and managed independently they are more similar to Isolated Mini-grids. These differences call for different policy and regulatory approaches, so a separate Technology category has been established.</span>
+Grid-connected [[Portal:Mini-grid|mini-grids]] and distribution systems&nbsp; share characteristics with both Grid Extension and&nbsp;<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Isolated Mini-grids – They are linked to the grid system and are able to import electricity from and export electricity to it, so technically they have more in common with Grid Extension. However, in that they are owned and managed independently they are more similar to Isolated Mini-grids. These differences call for different policy and regulatory approaches, so a separate Technology category has been established.</span>
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-Prices of standalone systems supplied by the private sector are generally unregulated. Where public funding is used to support provision of standalone systems it may (as with the [[NAE Case Study: Bangladesh, IDCOL Solar Home Systems|NAE Case Study of the IDCOL programme in Bangladesh]]) be appropriate to regulate prices. Also, if the move towards pay-as-you-go, with users paying for electricity as they do from grid or mini-grids, while suppliers retain ownership of the capital equipment, continues or accelerates, regulation of the prices they pay may become more relevant. Regulation of prices for standalone systems, or of electricity supplied through these systems, on an individual basis is impractical given the multiplicity of systems. Uniform price regulation, where a standard price or tariff is set is more likely to be viable. However, any such regulation should recognize the differentials in costs between different types and sizes of standalone system, and parity<br/>with grid (or mini-grid) prices should only be attempted if subsidies are available to balance the cost differentials between these different Technologies.<br/>
+Prices of standalone systems supplied by the private sector are generally unregulated. Where public funding is used to support provision of standalone systems it may (as with the [[NAE Case Study: Bangladesh, IDCOL Solar Home Systems|NAE Case Study of the IDCOL programme in Bangladesh]]) be appropriate to regulate prices. Also, if the move towards pay-as-you-go, with users paying for electricity as they do from grid or mini-grids, while suppliers retain ownership of the capital equipment, continues or accelerates, regulation of the prices they pay may become more relevant. Regulation of prices for standalone systems, or of electricity supplied through these systems, on an individual basis is impractical given the multiplicity of systems. Uniform price regulation, where a standard price or tariff is set is more likely to be viable. However, any such regulation should recognize the differentials in costs between different types and sizes of standalone system, and parity with grid (or mini-grid) prices should only be attempted if subsidies are available to balance the cost differentials between these different Technologies.<br/>
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