View source for From the 'Energy Ladder' to 'Fuel Stacking'


= Overview =

This article investigates the origins of the ‘''Energy Ladder''’ concept, its applications, the factors affecting it, and its relation to other correlated concepts, such as: ‘''Energy Transition''’ & ‘''Energy Stacking''’. It also gives a critical examination of the energy ladder and explains the current concept of fuel stacking.

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= Origins of the 'Energy Ladder' =

The idea of the energy ladder started to emerge in parallel to the fuel-wood crisis in the 1970s-1980s as Toole (2015) suggests.&nbsp;The energy ladder was designed as a hierarchical relationship between households’ rise in economic status and the fuel type(s) they use for cooking and heating<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>.&nbsp;&nbsp;According to consumer economic theory, when the income increases, the consumer usually chooses to purchase more “superior” goods and less “inferior” goods<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>.&nbsp;The energy researchers then linked the consumer economic theory with energy, showing that also households act as if they were consumers, who try to maximize their energy utilities accordingly to their economic status<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref><ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.<br/>

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Hence, as the income of a household rises, the household starts consuming different types of fuel which are located in higher-ranked rungs of the ladder<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>.<br/>

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According to Paunio (2018), indoor air pollution (IAP) expert Kirk Smith introduced the energy ladder concept to the World Health Organization (WHO), during the early 1990s. The concept was introduced as a way of understanding how annual deaths caused by IAP could be prevented<ref name="Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf">Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf</ref>. In that case, the energy ladder simulates the state of the development of a country<ref name="Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf">Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf</ref>. As countries become wealthier, households start moving away from biomass into national electric grids or district heating systems<ref name="Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf">Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf</ref>. This way, the economic development of a country is reflected in the households' energy-behaviour<ref name="Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf">Paunio, M. (2018). Kicking Away the Energy Ladder: How Environmentalism Destroys Hope of the Poorest. Retrieved from: https://www.thegwpf.org/content/uploads/2018/05/Paunio-EnergyLadder.pdf</ref>.<br/>

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= Constructing the Rungs of the Ladder =

According to Toole (2015) & Nansairo et al. (2011), the association of the fuel types of the different rungs of the ladder is characterized in accordance to:<br/>

*Cost of the fuel.
*Cleanliness of the fuel.
*Energy efficiency of the fuel.
*Greater convenience.
*Costs of higher lifecycle.

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There exists a variation of how the rungs of the ladder were divided and constructed in different literatures and theories.&nbsp;For example, Hosier and Dowd presented a five-rung ladder, which is ordered ascendingly as follows<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>:

#Gathered fuelwood.
#Purchased fuelwood.
#Transition fuels.
#Kerosene.
#Electricity.

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In another case, Reddy (1995) designed a six-rung ladder, representing the following ascending order<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>:<br/>

#Dung/waste.
#Fuelwood.
#Charcoal.
#Kerosene.
#LPG.
#Electricity.

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Furthermore –as shown in the following graph-, fuels can be also be divided into solids and non-solids. To each classification belong different fuels, which are allocated ascendingly along the ladder.<br/>

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[[File:The Energy Ladder (Paunio, 2018) 01.PNG|thumb|center|650px|The Energy Ladder (Paunio, 2018)]]<br/>

Van der Kroon yet adds another classification, in which the types of fuels consist of 3 main classifications: primitive fuels, transition fuels, and advanced fuels, with each class divided into more different types of fuels<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>.<br/>

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Another classification assumes that the rungs of the ladder differ regionally<ref name="Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886">Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886</ref>.&nbsp;For example: in South Asia cow dung is at the bottom of the ladder, then crop residues, wood, kerosene, gas with electricity at the top of the ladder<ref name="Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886">Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886</ref>.&nbsp;While in mainland Southeast Asia, wood represents the bottom rung, then charcoal, kerosene, LPG and electricity in ascending order<ref name="Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886">Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886</ref>.&nbsp;<br/>

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Finally, a sort of generalization of the fuel types occupying the ladder can be applied as follows: biomass -> kerosene -> LPG -> electricity in ascending order<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>.<br/>

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= The 'Energy Ladder' & the 'Energy Transition' =

The ‘Energy Ladder’ describes the change in energy-use and demand patterns in accordance to the variations in economic status of the household<ref name="Erdmann, T. & Haigh, M. (2013). The Energy Ladder: A Model for Projecting Energy Demand. Retrieved from: http://www.biee.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/Erdmann-The-Energy-Ladder-v2.pdf">Erdmann, T. & Haigh, M. (2013). The Energy Ladder: A Model for Projecting Energy Demand. Retrieved from: http://www.biee.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/Erdmann-The-Energy-Ladder-v2.pdf</ref><ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.&nbsp;<br/>

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The lower the income of the households, the more they rely on biomass fuels, such as wood and dung<ref name="Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf">Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf</ref>.&nbsp;When incomes start rising, a transition occurs where the households start shifting towards cleaner and more expensive fuels (LPG & electricity), hence, ''<u>climbing the ladder</u>''<ref name="Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf">Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf</ref><ref name="Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886">Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886</ref><br/><br/>Fully climbing the energy ladder can be presented as linear movement that is consistent of three different phases<ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.&nbsp;The 1<sup>st</sup> phase is when a household gains a socio-economic status, leading it to abandon inefficient cheap and polluting fuels, the 2<sup>nd</sup> is for the household to move away from reliance on traditional fuels into transition fuels such as: kerosene and coal, eventually, the 3<sup>rd</sup> phase is to fully switch into LGP and electricity<ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref><br/>

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This state of switching from an inferior fuel (lower on the rungs of the energy ladder), to a superior one (higher on the rungs of the energy ladder), is then what is called ''<u>the Energy Transition</u>''<ref name="Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf">Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf</ref><ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.<br/>

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= Introducing 'Fuel Stacking' =

Economic growth alone cannot be considered as the main and only driver for households to change their energy-use-behavior, as other important drivers participate in forming these decisions, such as: environmental pressure, technological advancement, resource availability, the choices people make, levels of urbanization and living standards<ref name="Erdmann, T. & Haigh, M. (2013). The Energy Ladder: A Model for Projecting Energy Demand. Retrieved from: http://www.biee.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/Erdmann-The-Energy-Ladder-v2.pdf">Erdmann, T. & Haigh, M. (2013). The Energy Ladder: A Model for Projecting Energy Demand. Retrieved from: http://www.biee.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/Erdmann-The-Energy-Ladder-v2.pdf</ref><ref name="Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886">Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886</ref>.<br/>

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[[File:The Energy Ladder (Paunio, 2018) 02.PNG|thumb|center|650px|General Conceptual Framework for Explaining Household Energy Choices (Kroon et al., 2013)]]<br/>

Even more factors that could affect the fuel-switching behavior of households: price changes, preferences, taste, reliability of supply, cooking and consumption habits, availability of technology, education, household composition and further cultural or habitual factors, which the energy ladder hypothesis has failed to include<ref name="Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf">Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf</ref><ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref>.<br/>

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Hence, a complex and interactive web of factors influence households in taking decisions on any kind of fuel-switching. This process of switching does not happen as a series of simple disconnected steps, but it is an intertwined and connected<ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.&nbsp;Accordingly, the fuel-switching process is not unidirectional, and households can both use more advanced fuels for certain purposes, in combination with more traditional ones for other purposes of the household<ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.<br/>

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Taken these considerations into account, the new concept ‘Fuel Stacking’ or ‘Multiple Fuel Model’ has gained more relevance for explaining the household-energy-behaviour among researchers<ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.According to the ‘Fuel-Stacking’ concept, with increasing income, households do not fully switch to different fuel types, they rather use an energy mix or as of a menu<ref name="Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf">Mekonnen, A. Gebreegziabher, Z. Kassie, M. & Köln, G. (2009). Income Alone Doesn’t Determine Adoption and Choice of Fuel Types: Evidence from Households in Tigrai and Major Cities in Ethiopia. Retrieved from: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.efdinitiative.org/sites/default/files/urban20feul20choice20brief.pdf</ref><ref name="Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594">Kroon, B.V.D. Brouwer, R. & Van Beukering, P.J.H. (2013). The Energy Ladder: Theoretical Myth or Empirical Truth? Results from a Meta-analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Volume 20: 504-513. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112006594</ref>.&nbsp;The households in that case, rely on multiple fuels in their energy-use, using higher proportions of superior fuels in mixture with inferiors ones<ref name="Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf">Toole, R. (2015). The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa?. Retrieved from: https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf</ref><ref name="Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886">Nansairo, A. Patanothai, A. Rambo, A.T. & Simaraks, S. (2011). Climbing the Energy Ladder or Diversifying Energy Sources? The Continuing Importance of Household Use of Biomass Energy in Urbanizing Communities in Northeast Thailand. Biomass and Energy volume 35, Issue 10: 4180-4188. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0961953411003886</ref>.<br/>

<br/>

= Conclusions<br/> =

As shown in the following figure, there exist two types of approaches to explain households’ energy-use-behavior and their economic development: the energy ladder & the concept of energy/fuel stacking.

<br/>

[[File:The Energy Ladder (Paunio, 2018) 03.PNG|thumb|center|650px|The Processes of Energy Transition (Kroon et al., 2013)]]<br/>

While the energy ladder suggests that households completely switch the fuels they use with increasing income, the energy stacking rejects that, and suggests an alternative behavior of using multiple fuels at the same time.<br/>

<br/>

Though the two concepts resemble two different approaches, yet both construct a hierarchical relationship for fuel types, which can be generalized as follows: biomass -> kerosene -> LPG -> electricity. Notably, biomass can be considered a very clean and modern fuel in different cases, depending on the technology applied and the usage of the household.<br/>

<br/>

Finally, despite the popularity of the energy ladder concept -for explaining the energy behaviour of the households- until the beginnings of the 21<sup>st</sup> century, the concept is becoming more outdated, being replaced by the fuel stacking one.

&nbsp;

= Further Information =

*[https://www.unicamp.br/fea/ortega/energy/Reddy.pdf Economic and Social Dimensions of Household Energy-Use: A Casestudy of India]
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303867071_Urban_household_cooking_energy_choice_an_example_of_Bauchi_metropolis_Nigeria Urban Household Cooking Energy Choice: An Example of Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria]
*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421511004861 Three Dimensional Energy Profile - A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Household Energy Use]
*[http://www.abrmr.com/myfile/conference_proceedings/Con_Pro_65194/conference_88035.pdf Determinants of Fuels Stacking Behaviour among Household in Bauchi Metropolis]
*[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X00000760 From Linear Fuel Switching to Multiple Cooking Strategies - A Critique and Alternative to the Energy Ladder Model]
*[http://faere.fr/pub/Conf2017/FAERE2017_Choumert.pdf Energy Ladder or Energy Stacking: A Panel Data Analysis of Tanzanian Households' Energy Choices]
*[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPSIA/Resources/490023-1120845825946/FuelUseMulticountryStudy_05.pdf Household Fuel and Energy Use in Developing Countries - A Multicountry Study]
*[https://sites.tufts.edu/MaryDavis/files/2015/06/ThesisFinal.pdf The Energy Ladder: A Valid Model for Household Fuel Transitions in Sub-Saharan Africa]
*[[Publication - Energy Access and Off-Grid Solar Use in Uganda: Examining Solar Adoption and the Role of Flexible Payment Mechanisms as a Driver for Energy Access|Energy Access and Off-Grid Solar Use in Uganda: Examining Solar Adoption and the Role of Flexible Payment Mechanisms as a Driver for Energy Access]]
*[[Cooking Fuels|Cooking Fuels]]
*[[LPG for cooking|Cooking with Liequefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)]]
*[[Cooking with Biogas|Cooking with Biogas]]
*[[Cooking with Gas|Cooking with Gas]]
*[[Cooking with Coal|Cooking with Coal]]
*[[Cooking with Kerosene|Cooking with Kerosene]]
*[[Cooking with Plant Oil|Cooking with Plant Oil]]
*[[Cooking with Ethanol and Methanol|Cooking with Ethanol and Methanol]]
*[[Cooking with Liquid Fuels|Cooking with Liquid Fuels]]
*[[Cooking with Dung|Cooking with Dung]]
*[[Cooking with Woodfuels (Firewood and Charcoal)|Cooking with Woodfuels (Firewood and Charcoal)]]
*[[Cooking with Firewood|Cooking with Firewood]]
*[[Cooking with Agricultural Residues|Cooking with Agricultural Residues]]
*[[Cooking with Woodgas|Cooking with Woodgas]]
*[[Cooking with the Sun|Cooking with the Sun]]

<br/>

= References =

<references /><br/>

[[Category:Energy_Transition]]
[[Category:Kerosene]]
[[Category:Biomass]]
[[Category:Liquid_Petroleum_Gas_(LPG)]]
[[Category:Electricity]]
[[Category:Charcoal]]
[[Category:Dung]]
[[Category:Woodfuel]]