Non-Financial Interventions: Actions taken to support or facilitate electricity access

Interventions should be regarded as part of a National Electrification Approache only if they are integral to governement electrification policy/strategy

Direct Energy Access Provision

Definition

Direct action by an implementing authority (such as a Rural Energy Agency or national utility) to provide or take part in the provision of electricity directly, rather than by funding, incentivizing or facilitating provision by others.

This may include providing:

all, or multiple, steps along the supply chain - for instance development, construction and operation of isolated mini-grids and sale of electricity to users;
one link along the supply chain, such as bulk purchase of solar home systems which are then purchased by retailers to be distributed and sold to users

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	Grid extension is often directly provided, but direct provision may also be used for mini-grids and standalone systems.
	Delivery Model	Direct provision sits naturally with a public delivery model where all the elements along the supply chain are undertaken by public entities. Where the public sector wishes to take on only some roles along the chain, a public-private partnership may be more appropriate. Direct provision through a purely private model is difficult to envisage.
	Legual Basis	Direct provision may be on a national concession monopoly basis, with oversight and control being through the organisational hierarchy (though a transparent regulatory system would still be best practice). Where direct provision is applied to only one part of electricity access and or to only some elements of the supply chain, it is important that the regulatory basis is clear so that other market participants can understand it and so that any potential threat to them is reduced.
	Price/Tariff Regulation
	Finance	Private finance is unlikely to be used to fund direct provision, though it will probably be used in the private elements of a public-private partnership arrangement including direct provision (and could be leveraged by the direct provision elements). Some form of public funding is very likely to be involved in direct provision, though since this may be within the public sector it may be implicit rather than through explicit grants or subsidies. Direct provision may also draw on cross-subsidies and hence on charges on existing users to subsidise provision to new users.
	Other Forms of Non-Financial Interventions	National energy planning will establish the optimum mix of technologies to meet electrification needs across the country, but not how they are best provided. Direct provision will often take place within existing structures, however Institutional restructuring may be needed to provide a focus for provision – eg by a Rural Energy Agency – and capacity building or technical assistance for this new organisation may be merited. Direct provision may also be accompanied by measures such as demand promotion and technology adoption.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Direct provision will generally use existing institutions, capabilities and systems and where these are strong may bring advantages. By drawing on these strengths it can bring economies of scale (eg through bulk purchasing). However, this will often be accompanied by entrenched ways of working and be inflexible and slow moving. Direct provision also has the potential to bring in other participants (for instance by offering standalone system providers a simple way to distribute their products), but carries the risk of distorting and crowding others out of the energy access provision.

Further Information and Guidance

Barnes, D. (2007). The Challenge of Rural Electrification: Strategies for Developing Countries. Book Chapter. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iOBi17Pr3fIC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
ESMAP (2005), Meeting the Challenge of Rural Electrification in Developing Nations: The Experience of Successful Programs https://static.globalinnovationexchange.org/s3fs-public/asset/document/Meeting0the0Ch10Discussion0Version0.pdf?q3Tol9Bdn4yH4J43t3P9t3hq5lh6ZipT
IEA, (2010), Comparative Study on Rural Electrification Policies in Emerging Economies https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/rural_elect.pdf
The World Bank Group, (2012). Institutional Approaches to Electrification: The Experience of Rural Energy Agencies/ Rural Energy Funds in Sub-Saharan Africa. November 14–16, 2011 Dakar, Senegal https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/26073/763820WP0P11090s0to0Electrification.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Relevante Case Studies:

Institutional Restructuring

Definition

Reorganising and reassigning responsibilities between government departments, agencies, utilities and other organisations charged with managing the sector and delivering electricity access.

In many countries, the national electricity utility has historically been the sole provider of electricity and responsible for all electrification efforts. The motivation for institutional reform is generally some combination of poor performance or inefficiency of existing institutions (often the national utility) and a wish to accelerate extension of electricity access, to introduce new forms of electricity provision, to bring in new (often private) funding and investment or to create greater transparency and accountability.

The experience of structural change to the electricity industry in many countries has highlighted some key lessons. Orthodox approaches to organisations are often unsuitable, and no one industry structure appears to be significantly better than others. A structure compatible with the objectives of electricity distribution in developing countries, and with the local context and planned approach to electrification is needed. Energy sector restructuring has a significant political dimension, but restructuring can still fail even if there is support from government at a high level. It has also been noted that indecision and uncertainty regarding the format of a restructured utility can have serious negative consequences.

The organisations most frequently involved in institutional restructuring include:

Renewable Energy Agency (REA) – a national REA is usually a semi-autonomous institution which is responsible for executing the Government’s Rural Electrification Plan or Programme. Its major responsibilities include: planning and packaging projects for public or private investment in rural electrification and renewable energy power generation; implementing priority rural electrification projects; administering capital subsidies for private investments; maintaining a national database for rural electrification;
advising the relevant Government department(s) on policy issues in rural electrification; and managing any rural electrification programmes implemented with Government support.

Regulator– electricity regulatory agencies display a range of effectiveness depending upon their structure and official remit, and particularly their degree of independence. The presence of an electricity (or energy) regulatory law is a key factor in determining the role of a regulatory agency; with such a law established, the agency can provide independent enforcement but otherwise will be seen as an arm of Government during the preparation of such regulation. Whether or not the regulator is an autonomous agency or the sector ministry will clearly have a direct bearing on its level of independence (practical and/or perceived) and hence its likely impact. The mode of financing the regulatory agency is also an important factor in determining its cost-effectiveness; a regulator that is funded by a licence fee obligation or a line item in customers’ electricity bills clearly has a different status to one that is supported with a budget allocated by Government. It is important however to accept that each institutional structure must take account of specific local conditions and must be viewed within this context.

National electricity utility – over recent years, there have been several examples of national utilities in developing countries adopting a new approach to their operations, mainly through division into different operational units, and/or through privatisation. These reforms have mainly involved the unbundling of vertically integrated government utilities into three separate segments for generation, transmission and distribution. The main drivers for such change have been to improve quality of service, improve connectivity, improve reliability, reduce losses, attract private capital investment into the sector, and so enhance overall sector efficiency. When considering the privatisation of one or more of the resulting units, it is important for the government to assess in advance the likely impact, and to determine the most relevant options for tariffs. Some of the key objectives for such reform will include making the sector financially viable and able to perform without subsidies; increasing efficiency; improving commercial performance; meeting the increasing demand for electricity and the broader area coverage; improving the reliability and quality of electricity supply; attracting private sector capital and entrepreneurs and taking advantage of export opportunities.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	Institutional reform will have an impact on all approaches to electrification and the associated technology categories. For grid extension, existing institutions have extensive experience of practices that may no longer be most appropriate for electrification in more areas. New practices may be required to increase levels of efficiency in order to make further grid extension a viable option, new expertise and knowledge may be needed to support adoption of new forms of electricity provision, and cultural change may be needed to achieve increased focus on supplying new users alongside serving existing customers. mini-grids, whether isolated or integrated with the grid, require different support structures to be effective, reliable and commercially viable. Stand-alone systems again offer a different approach to the aims of electrification, with the satisfaction of basic needs being the principle driver, rather than a full power service. This too requires a different institutional perspective, skills and understanding that can only be delivered through the reform of existing support structures.
	Delivery Models	The institutions originally established to deal with power generation and supply were almost exclusively public sector, centred upon the national electricity utility. With the increasing cost of reaching more remote areas, the need for upfront investment has become a serious constraint to network expansion. Rural electrification also raises new challenges regarding the need for more intensive community interaction and closer management of the local operations. Consequently, the resources that can more readily be offered by the private sector – including the scale of investment and commercial management in order to make sufficient returns – are increasingly required. There is a growing need for private models and public-private-partnerships, which face the barrier of public institutions that have experience of a single method of providing access to electricity. The reform of these institutions, taking account of private sector interests, can thereby create opportunities for partnerships that will bring mutual benefits to all involved.
	Legual Basis	Establishment of either or concessions or licenses for electricity provider implies a wish to bring in private or public-private electricity provision. Setting up these arrangements will require competent institutions with responsibility for managing them, and institutional restructuring is a likely response to this need and a first step in establishing new legal arrangements for electricity provision.
	Price/Tariff Regulation	Similarly any form of price/tariff regulation requires a regulator. A regulator independent from government and those with vested interests in the sector will carry greatest credibility with potential new electricity providers and investors. Subsequent changes and adjustments to regulatory frameworks will be the responsibility of the regulator.
	Finance	An institutional structure convincing to private sector businesses and investors is key to attracting private finance. It is also through this institutional structure that the interests of users are protected and the portion of funding provided by users set. The institutional structure also governs how any grant/subsidy, cross-subsidy, tax exemptions and guarantee arrangements are set up and implemented.
	Other Forms of Non-Financial Interventions	The institutions charged with managing the sector and delivering electricity access will also be responsible for designing and managing non-financial interventions. One key element of institutional change will be to match the capabilities of staff to new requirements. Training to familiarise staff with new approaches, and to transfer the new skills required to provide the associated support will be an important requirement for any lasting reform process (and, if fulfilled adequately, will also incur a significant cost due to the large size of the institutions involved and the broad range of their activities – this should be budgeted in advance to set clear expectations). A first step in this process will be to educate staff regarding the need for reform, to convince them of the benefits, and so secure ownership and commitment to the change process. In the case that existing staff are unable or unwilling to adapt their approach, or when new skills are required to support modern demands, then the recruitment of new staff should be considered to establish the target capacity). Having raised the awareness and understanding of staff, they will become more receptive to the transfer of skills, equipping the institution with sufficient capacity to move forward, with minimum disruption.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The main benefit from institutional reform is to improve the operation and therefore the efficiency of current organisations involved with the expansion of electrification and to align them with new models and approaches to electrification. The electricity industry has usually been centred upon a national power utility, whose focus has been exclusively on grid-extension. With the increasing cost of electrification to remote areas, alternatives to the central grid have become more relevant, but the utility is often not structured in a way that can consider and react to these alternatives. The reform of the utility, and related state structures, can increase the ability of the sector to consider and react more positively to new electrification approaches.

An immediate disadvantage from such reform is the impact of change. Such change is often disruptive and will initially require additional resources to introduce unfamiliar systems and there may be significant costs associated with new infrastructure and systems. There will also be the need to support capacity building for operators who have been involved with previous systems, and possibly the introduction of new staff to enable sustainable reform processes. Given these costs it is important to be sure that institutional restructuring is necessary and not just a distraction from the real challenges of extending electrification. However it is usually a one-off, upfront cost to put changes into effect; this can then be compensated over time from the improved efficiencies and more cost-effective output.

Further Information and Guidance

IADB (Balza, Jimenez, Mercado), Dec 2013, Privatization, Institutional Reform, and Performance in the Latin American Electricity Sector. https://publications.iadb.org/handle/11319/6016
The World Bank Group, (2012). Institutional Approaches to Electrification: The Experience of Rural Energy Agencies/ Rural Energy Funds in Sub-Saharan Africa. November 14–16, 2011 Dakar, Senegal https ://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/26073/763820WP0P11090s0to0Electrification.pdf?sequence =1&isAllowed=y

Relevante Case Studies:

Regulatory Reform

Definition

Reform of laws and regulations governing the generation, distribution and sale of electricity, and of related processes and procedures.

Because electricity is such an essential service, most countries have some regulation of who may provide and sell electricity, and on what terms, to protect both providers and users. Often these have in the past been based on the assumption that electricity will be provided through a national grid system. As new options for electricity provision emerge, regulatory reform may be needed to enable their implementation, to create incentives for private and public sector power utilities to provide electricity, both through the extension of electricity networks and decentralized power provision, and to protect users.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	Regulation of the grid system is generally well established. Reform may be required in order to allow for privatisation and introduction of private finance, creation of grid connected distribution systems or introduction of grid connected mini-grids or Independent Power Plants. Regulatory reform may also be needed to allow and incentivize isolated mini-grids. Standalone systems have in the past generally been unregulated, but as these become a more significant element in electricity provision, reform may be undertaken to bring them under regulatory control and to create incentives for their supply. In particular it may be necessary in order to allow pay-as-you-go arrangements to be established.
	Delivery Model	Within a public delivery model, regulatory reform will generally be a matter of improving efficiency and transparency. Reform is likely, however, be fundamental to allowing private and public-private partnership models for electricity delivery. The regulatory structure which is the outcome of this reform will form the basis of the development of these models and how they deliver electricity access.
	Legual Basis	The current regulatory framework must be the stating point for any reform. In many cases this will be a monopoly (nation-wide concession) for the national utility. The fundamental requirement to allow private sector participation is to make it legal. This may achieved simply by change in the law allowing all to generate and sell electricity, but authorities generally wish to maintain some level of oversight, over larger mini-grids at least, and so require their operators to be licensed. Alternatively, concession areas may be established, creating local monopolies for which electricity businesses can compete, with the terms of the concession agreement setting out the concessionaires rights and obligations. Standalone system providers are not usually covered by any utility monopoly (since it is the means of accessing electricity rather than electricity itself which they are selling), but as they become a more significant element in electricity provision, and particularly to allow pay-as-you-go arrangements, their regulation may be appropriate. Regulatory reform will be required to introduce such regulatory approaches, or to transition between one approach and another according to experience under local conditions.
	Price/Tariff Regulation	Regulatory reform is also central to establishing regulation of prices and tariffs. Appropriate price/tariff regulation is important to to protect users and incentivize suppliers. To see further information on different forms of price/tariff regulation, please go to the Uniform Price/Tariff and Individual Price/Tariff category descriptions.
	Finance	The most usual motives for regulatory reform are to allow and encourage private, commercial, investment in electricity provision and to protect users and limit the requirement for user finance through price/tariff regulation. Reform to financial and tax regulation may also be needed to allow pay-as-you-go arrangements and to establish any tax exemptions. While grants, subsidies and guarantees are less directly linked to regulatory reform, it is important that they be aligned with the regulatory framework established.
	Other Forms of Non-Financial Interventions	Institutional Restructuring frequently accompanies Regulatory Reform, particularly where restructuring is needed to manage the regulatory framework being established. Both the regulatory framework and the institutional structure should be aligned with government policy and targets. Capacity building or technical assistance may be needed where the key actors involved do not have the expertise needed to design the regulatory framework.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Regulatory reform is an essential pre-requisite to many National Electrification Approaches. Its main disadvantages are the costs and resources used in reform, and the risk that the regulatory system designed may not, in practice, support the intended objectives and that over-regulation may hamper rather than assist improvements in electricity access.

Further Information and Guidance

AFREPREN (Karekezi, Kimani) Status of Power Sector Reform in Africa: Impact on the Poor www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421502000484
AIMS Energy (2015), Reforms for the expansion of electricity access and rural electrification in small island developing states http://www.aimspress.com/fileOther/PDF/energy/201503463.pdf
EUEI PDF (2014), Mini-grid Policy Toolkit: Policy and Business Frameworks for Successful Mini-grid Roll-outs http://www.euei-pdf.org/sites/default/files/field_publication_file/RECP_mini-grid_Policy_Toolkit_1pageview_(pdf,_17.6MB,_EN_0.pdf
IRENA (2016), Policies and regulations to support renewable energy mini-grid development through private sector
involvement http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Policies_Regulations_mini-grids_2016.pdf
Senegal. Agence Senegalaise d’Electrification Rurale (2009), Concession d’Electrification Rurale au Senegal, The Africa Electrification Initiative (AEI) Workshop, Maputo, Mozambique 9-12 Juin 2009. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRREGTOPENERGY/Resources/717305-1264695610003/6743444-1268073657582/15.4.Senegal.pdf
Senegal. OBA (2007), OBA in Senegal – Designing Technology-Neutral Concessions for Rural Electrification https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle /10986/11034/396090SN0OBApp1140Electric01PUBLIC1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
World Bank, (2000), Regulatory Approaches to Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy: Case Studies from Six
Developing Countries http://www.martinot.info/Martinot_Reiche_WB.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

Policy & Target Setting

Definition

Establishment of Government policy for the expansion of electrification and definition of targets for achievement of electricity access provision over a defined timeframe.

There is widespread experience across the world of the positive impact of relevant targets within a broader policy for access to electricity. Existence of a clear policy and targets provides a foundation for implementation, offering installers and financiers clear guidance on the government’s commitment to electrification and regarding the types of electricity provision required; this brings certainty to the market and hence encourages sustainable investment in this area. While policy sets out the overall direction of the national approach to electrification, targets provide clear and quantified objectives. Targets may be set in terms of capacity/volume of electricity supplied or of numbers of household, businesses and community facilities provided with electricity access and levels of electricity access provided. They may be blind to the means used for provision or relate to specific technologies or to renewable versus fossil-fuelled electricity. Any targets should include clear timescales to allow progress to be monitored.

Establishing targets in law is an important step in increasing their credibility and longevity. While most targets currently adopted around the world lack clear enforcement mechanisms or penalties, a number of countries are setting legally-binding targets. Making targets binding in law helps reassure investors in the expansion of electrification that a local market will continue to exist in the future. Furthermore, legally binding targets are harder to repeal and therefore may be less vulnerable to changes in the political climate. Overall, the track record for jurisdictions with aspirational targets is varied. In contrast, the track record for jurisdictions with binding targets is considerably stronger.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	In the past targets have been set mainly in terms of generating capacity (MW), output (MWh) and numbers of (grid) connections. This approach is becoming increasingly outdated in a changing electricity landscape as it ignores off-grid forms of access and focusses on supply rather than the applications supported by electricity, with the ongoing development of low-energy appliances. Instead it is suggested that, in line with the SE4All Multi-Tier Tracking Framework, targets should be formulated in terms of numbers gaining electricity access and levels of access achieved. Governments increasingly recognise the benefits of adopting a portfolio approach to any renewable energy deployment, including the use of local renewable resources for electrification. Targets that are exclusive to selected technologies can be introduced to support their specific deployment, in particular when they are most suitable in terms of resource availability (e.g. solar electricity generation targets in Dubai). Such targets can also give investors confidence and catalyse development of the market for these selected technologies. In addition, technology-specific targets can support the diversification of the energy mix to increase energy security. As a result, technology-specific targets have significantly increased in recent years. By encouraging the simultaneous development of a range of different electrification options, policy makers are enabling more diversified electricity supply sectors to emerge and to grow.
	Delivery Model	Under a public delivery model, government policy and targets effectively act as instructions to those managing electricity provision. Under private or public-private partnerships targets may be made obligatory through concession and licensing arrangements, but care should be taken in establishing onerous business-specific obligatory targets since these may discourage investment, even while the government commitment to electrification embodied in policy and targets can encourage it.
	Legual Basis	Any targets established by Government authorities should be in line with other regulatory measures. Any provisions made to grant licences or concessions, or any framework in place for electrification through a monopoly provider, must be accounted for in order for electrification targets to be realistic within the constraints of agreements already reached. Licence holders and concessionaires often have clear limits specified for the number of increased connections that they are able to deliver. Any policy or targets must be aligned with such agreements, and include clear justification (including the source of any additional installation capacity) if targets are set above the limits already in place for suppliers engaged through existing regulation.
	Price/Tariff Regulation
	Finance	One of the main purposes for setting targets is to direct financial resources. At the same time, one of the factors to take into account when setting targets is the availability of finance – from the public purse, from users’ willingness-to-pay and from private investment. In order to have sufficient confidence for investment in any market, financiers will usually require some clear policy commitment. The definition of targets related to such electrification policy has great value since such quantification provides a much clearer definition of the size of the market and thereby the potential returns for investors. This level of clarity, with policy commitments backed up by target levels of electricity access, means greater certainty and therefore increased willingness to invest.
	Other Forms of Non-Financial Interventions	Any policy that includes a framework for expansion of electrification by specific means (whether grid, mini-grid or stand-alone systems) will provide a foundation for the increased involvement of installers and financiers. Potential end-users will also become aware of such commitments and policy and targets will thereby increase awareness of the opportunity for electrification. Targets and policy for greater access to electricity thus feed directly into provision of market information for businesses, awareness raising and demand promotion. Government policy also forms the starting point for any direct electricity provision and for institutional restructuring and regulatory reform through which the policy will be delivered. Technical assistance may be needed to support policy and target setting.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Targets can have a number of positive functions at different stages of the policy-making process (i.e. formulation, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation). They serve an important guiding and knowledge function at the policy formulation stage, where they can bring consistency across different policy spheres and reveal data requirements and discrepancies. They can also enhance the transparency of the policy-making process by providing a common information base to all stakeholders, thereby fostering public support. At the policy implementation stage, targets signal political commitment, indicate long-term investment and innovation trends, improve coordination and motivate stakeholders to take action. At the monitoring and evaluation stage, targets can help measure the effectiveness of various policies and measures, and provide an opportunity for review, adaptation and continuous improvement. One potential disadvantage is the cost in terms of staff time from the institution responsible for policy and target setting. This relates initially to determining an effective target level, which requires research into the costs and benefits of expanded electricity supplies as well as clear understanding of the local issues that will determine user demand, ownership and likely take-up. But also, having established the desired level for target-setting, the type of approach (from voluntary commitments to legal obligations) must be determined according to relevant policy frameworks. This may require further policy preparation or adaption and hence additional institutional resources. Finally, the enforcement of any targets will add to the capacity needs and may require the definition of a new function within an existing authority, or the establishment of a new body to perform this role. Whichever approach is adopted, there is a substantial capacity requirement.

Further Information and Guidance

Ecuador’s electrification master-plan: http://www.conelec.gob.ec/contenido.php?cd=10329&l=1
IRENA (2015) Target Setting Report http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_RE_Target_Setting_2015.pdf
Tanzania’s SREP Master Plan: https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/sites/climateinvestmentfunds.org/files/SREP_Tanzania_Investment_ Plan_Design.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

Quality/Technical Standards

Definition:

Rules or guidelines for suppliers and installers (of products and services related to electrification) that ensure safety, compatibility and that performance meets user expectations. Technical standards apply to the performance of equipment installed, while quality standards also relate to the overall customer service experience.

A common cause of the failure of rural electrification initiatives is sub-standard quality, whether of system components, project design or the management of installation. The rapid influx of low cost, sub-standard components is a major problem in many markets in developing countries, where lower quality rural electrification projects lead to a wide range of related concerns. These may include reduced system output, less reliable operation, greater need for maintenance and replacement parts, higher life-time system costs (which require higher prices or tariffs), and lower overall customer satisfaction. Without such standards user confidence may be eroded, with users being reluctant to purchase products or services when they are unsure of what performance they will provide.

Wherever possible technical standards should be based on international standards. It may seem attractive to set nationally-specific standards, but these will discourage private providers from entering the market and increase costs of equipment. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) maintains and publishes guidelines for the development of national standards. In the future, these are expected to cover issues including system commissioning, maintenance and disposal, measurement of technical performance, new technology storage systems, and applications with special site conditions. For solar products, Lighting Africa provides the generally accepted standards and approves products. Government regulators in developing countries are increasingly aware of the need for such guidance, and are adopting international standards for a growing range of products for electrification.

Interaction with the likely users of standards during their preparation is important to gauge the real requirements and to judge the potential for practical implementation. If quality/technical standards are set at an unattainable level using the resources currently available, then suppliers are likely to group together to form a “black market” of sub-standard systems, protecting each other from any external investigation. For this reason, the standards authorities must understand the realistic customer expectations under local conditions and gear any standards preparation to ensuring that such levels are met or exceeded. Consultation with the range of stakeholders involved with the supply of the relevant systems – including producers, installers, service providers, and end-users – should be undertaken in the early stages of standards development to ensure that the local context is fully-accounted for.

The greatest challenge for the relevant authorities is not the preparation or even the adoption of standards by the related industry, but rather their enforcement. In broad terms, there are three main approaches to the enforcement of standards for electrification expansion, namely 1) permitting and certifying, 2) targeted inspections, and 3) sanctions and penalties. A combination of these approaches, based upon the local systems, culture and experience, will usually be required to ensure compliance.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	For all forms of electricity, the first requirement is safety. For grid systems, and for any grid-connected distribution systems or mini-grids, this is followed closely by technical compatibility – a grid system can only operate if all parts of it are compatible with each other. Most grid systems are designed to give a high level of performance, but sadly many in developing countries are unreliable and provide poor quality electricity, with variations in voltage and frequency leading to damage to users’ equipment. Key questions for isolated mini-grids are whether they aim to provide a grid-equivalent electricity supply, or a lower level of service (eg to power lighting and a small number of low-powered appliances per user), and whether they should be technically compatible with the grid system (facilitating subsequent grid-connection). For standalone systems, standards relate to the level of electricity provided and also, particularly for solar-based systems, to duration (hours/day) and life (especially battery life). In relation to enforcement, a clear distinction can be made between different types of rural electrification (grid extension, mini-grids, and stand-alone systems). The process for enforcing standards for grid and mini-grid applications should be more straightforward since it can be done at the permitting stage, via tendering with clear technical specifications built into the tender documents; regular monitoring, and site inspections. The standard of service experienced by the users will, however, depend as much on subsequent operation and maintenance. For stand-alone systems, some form of partnership is required to help implement the required standards; for example, if donor or government funds are involved, then quality standards can be made a condition for the disbursement of funds (in this case, the standards for the systems can be developed by national regulators and stipulated clearly upfront).
	Delivery Models	Within a public delivery model, particularly where there is a single national utility, standards may be set relatively informally and be treated as internal documents. One of the challenges of bringing in other, private and public-private providers is the need to formalise and make widely available these standards.
	Legual Basis	Technical and Quality Standards may be imposed and enforced through the conditions set for concessions and licenses. Making standards part of regulation is the strictest imposition. In an unregulated context, general legislation must be used, or voluntary standards established through industry associations may be more appropriate. The cost implications of standards should be recognised when prices or tariffs are being set – and price/tariff regulation can be one mechanism for enforcement of standards, with discounts being required if agreed quality standards are nor achieved.
	Price/Tariff Regulation
	Finance	Standards have direct impact on costs, for instance allowing low-cost distribution systems or service drops can reduce the cost of grid extension and mini-grids, and this should be borne in mind when they are being set. At the same time standards can make users more willing to pay charges as they have greater confidence in receiving what they are paying for, and this in turn will strengthen private investors willingness to provide finance. If donor or government funds are involved (eg as grants, subsidies or tax exemptions), then quality standards can be made a condition for the disbursement of funds.
	Other Forms of Non-Financial Interventions	Regulatory reform can provide a practical mechanism for introducing appropriate quality/technical standards. Institutional reform and capacity building (including setting up test facilities and training standards officers) may well be needed to support establishment and enforcement of new standards and well-targeted technical assistance which draws on experience and lessons learned elsewhere may help with this process. Raising users’ awareness of standards is a further critical step in ensuring that standards are applied in practice and don’t just exist on paper. The use of appropriate new technology for remote electrification applications will be dependent upon technical standards. On the one hand out-dated or inappropriate standards may exclude adoption of new technologies which could provide electricity at lower cost. On the other, a lack of relevant standards may mean that market forces drive the implementation of the lowest cost versions of available technologies which, almost invariably, will be of lower quality than required to meet customer needs.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The great benefit of introducing quality/technical standards for electrification expansion is to ensure safety and that users receive services and systems that provide electricity at the expected level, consistency and duration. While capital costs may be higher, maintenance and replacement costs should be reduced. It will also enhance user confidence in the remote electrification services provided, and hence increase demand and so support investment and creation of a market that will become sustainable over a shorter space of time. The reduced rate of disposal of redundant systems also brings environmental benefits from a lower negative impact of waste goods and materials.

The counter-argument is that standards serve to exclude lower-cost products and that users should be given the choice – but this relies on a high level of user awareness and understanding of technical issues, and ability to value quality differences, which can only be expected in a mature and sophisticated market. On a more practical level, it is the cost and expertise needed to establish standards and the resources and expenditure to enforce them which pose the most significant barrier to their adoption and effective implementation.

Further Information and Guidance

AFSEC (2016), Guide on applying and harmonizing standards in rural electrification: http://www.afsec-africa.org/Portals/15/Documents/2016/ptb_AFSEC_Guide_Rural_Electrification_Africa_WEB.pdf
Couture, T (2016) “How to Maintain Quality Standards in Rural Electrification https://cleanenergysolutions.org/sites/default/files/documents/cesc-webinar_quality-standards-in-rural-elec_oct_2016.pdf
IRENA (2013), International Standardisation in the Field of Renewable Energy, in_the_Field_of_Renewable_Energy.pdf https://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/International_Standardisation_ in_the_Field_of_ Renewable_Energy.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

Technical Assistance

Definition:

Advice and practical support on any aspect of electrification provided by external experts.

Technical assistance spans all aspects of electricity access provision, and may be used to support policy makers and regulators; those designing and implementing intervention programmes; and electricity access providers. The forms of technical assistance in greatest demand are usually advice on regulation and procurement of electricity provision, technical and engineering support; business and financial advice; legal and compliance advice; and market scoping, development and community engagement. Developers have indicated that such assistance can have great value by helping them to take projects through their development life cycle to reach financial closure.

Advisory services – these may come in the form of written instructions/guidance or direct intervention during practical application on the ground. Based upon the extensive experience of electrification elsewhere, experts in this field are in a good position to provide advice to project developers and implementers, government and financiers. The aim is to provide these local stakeholders with the results from experience – to ensure that they do not take routes that have been tried and failed elsewhere. Such support may be at a strategic level to determine the most relevant areas of priority in the target country, and/or at the practical level to ensure that experience from elsewhere is taken into full account, and positive results can be achieved more directly.

Target recipients – the target group for technical assistance often consists of project developers who are aiming to establish new electricity businesses. However, support is also required by other stakeholders who may otherwise be unfamiliar with the needs of electrification in remote areas. Such bodies include financiers (public and private), government, regulators and product/service providers who need to adapt to the local conditions, priorities and drivers in rural communities.

Community engagement – despite all of the knowledge and experience that can be provided through technical assistance, much of this will add little value if local conditions and context are not taken into account. Although much may be written about the situation in towns and villages in developing countries, one message is the most important, namely: everywhere is different. So the solution or approach that was successfully adopted elsewhere for the provision of electricity may not – or rather, probably will not – lead to the same results in a different community. For this reason, the practical technical assistance needs should be discussed with community members and leaders prior to specifying the format of such assistance. Only then can interventions with the highest value be determined.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories

The nature of technical assistance means that it may be used to provide support in any area of the process to bring new power supplies to unserved communities – consequently it may interact with almost all of the other NEA categories. Thus it may be used to support provision based on any technology and using any delivery model and to assist with design and implementation of legal and regulatory structures of whatever basis. However, there are some areas where technical assistance will have particular significance:

Finance

Technical assistance is often provided as a form of aid given to developing countries by international organizations, individual governments, foundations, and philanthropic institutions, or sometimes as a form of support by government to electricity businesses and developers. As such it acts as a type of grant or subsidy

Other Non-Financial Interventions

Institutional restructuring – implies that current institutions and their responsibilities are not well aligned with the latest challenges of electricity provision, and therefore that technical assistance may be particularly beneficial.

Regulatory Reform – electrification has been predominantly based upon the central grid structures that are driven by the national electricity utility. Regulations have consequently been prepared to cater for this framework. Elsewhere in the world, this model has been replaced with a greater focus on decentralised solutions that can be more cost-effective, particularly when connecting remote areas. Using the experience gained from elsewhere, technical assistance can help to reform current regulations, enabling them to address a combination of remote grid-extension, mini-grids and stand-alone systems, thereby allowing more rapid progress to the use of modern technology options.

Policy/Target-Setting – the preparation of policy and defining relevant targets are important developments that will guide the nature of electrification expansion, determine the rate of appropriate new connections, and ultimately determine the success of related efforts. Such processes have been implemented for many years in countries and so there are many sources of international skills and experience that will assist countries to prepare effective policy and define relevant targets. The provision of technical assistance can achieve the transfer of this knowledge and so help achieve positive outcomes sooner.

Quality/Technical Standards – technical assistance can help to transfer the skills and experience from countries that have developed effective technology and service standards, bring to developing countries the approaches required to ensure the application of appropriate systems and technologies for electrification. Without such standards, suppliers are likely to install low-cost and inefficient systems, thereby undermining the creation of any sustainable market. Technical assistance can help countries to invest in the preparation of standards that will provide a solid foundation for the expansion of cost-effective power supply.

Capacity Building/Awareness-Raising – technical assistance differs from capacity building and awareness raising in that technical assistance involves directly undertaking activities on behalf of those being supported, whereas capacity building’s aim is to build the skills and understanding of stakeholders to enable them to undertake activities on their own behalf. There is clearly a high degree of commonality between the two approaches and they are often undertaken in concert.

Technology Development/Adoption – technologies that can meet the needs of local users, based on the supply of local resources, are needed to enable affordable access to electricity in remote areas. There is great experience of technology development internationally, and technical assistance to transfer appropriate technology can provide swift progress towards the best available systems for the needs of targeted communities. The efficient identification, development and implementation of appropriate electrification technologies is likely to be achieved much more quickly if relevant technical assistance can be provided.

Advantages and Disadvantages (Including Level of Electrification Provided)

The great benefit of carefully targeted technical assistance is that actors in the target countries are empowered to deliver and maintain electrification initiatives without having to experience the trial and error that is usually associated with any new venture. Such assistance can transfer the skills and experience from operators who have many years of experience with electrification programmes and can therefore help to direct the local players to achieve the most cost-effective results. Duplication of irrelevant or unsuccessful initiatives can be avoided, thereby reducing the costs to project implementers and increasing the likelihood of achieving successful results.

One potential disadvantage of (poor) technical assistance is that it could lead to adoption of standard solutions without adequate consideration of the specific context and circumstances . Another is that, unlike capacity building, technical assistance does not leave a legacy of expertise, so unless accompanied by capacity building is most suitable for one-off activities which are unlikely to be repeated. Finally there is the potential for technical assistance to be misdirected. Care must therefore be taken with the selection of experts to provide technical assistance in order to avoid recommendations to uninformed local stakeholders that will simply not achieve the required electrification results in an effective or efficient manner. Any such external experts must therefore be required to identify and engage with the key local stakeholders in order to understand the current situation, the interests and expectations of the target local community(ies), and the values that they associate with different types of service. Only once the desired outcomes are clearly understood can any technical assistance provide substantive and value with lasting results.

Further Information and Guidance

Barnes, D (2005), Meeting the Challenge of Rural Electrification in Developing Nations: The Experience of Successful Programs, https://static.globalinnovationexchange.org

Relevante Case Studies:

Capacity Building/Awarness Raising

Definition:

Capacity building refers to increasing the knowledge, skills and understanding of stakeholders involved in electrification, often through training. Awareness raising, as part of capacity building, refers to educating stakeholders about opportunities, benefits and issues related to increased electrification.

Extending electricity provision in any developing country will involve a wide range of actors, including power generators and distributors, standalone system providers, policy-makers, regulators, installers, financiers and users. All of these groups require sufficient capacity in terms of skills and understanding to enable the process of electrification to be fulfilled successfully. Building this capacity is therefore a key requirement. A donor-funded project can bring the immediate benefits of electricity to a remote community, but without the training to equip local people with the capability to operate, service, and maintain the systems installed, the initially positive results from such an intervention will be short-lived. This is equally true for the processes and systems around electricity provision – without sufficient knowledge of the options policy makers are unlikely to be able to design effective regulatory structures and intervention programmes; without technical and business skills electricity providers will not deliver quality, cost-effective, sustainable electricity access; without awareness of electricity options and their uses and limitations, users will not be able to effectively secure its benefits, and will not create the political will to drive electrification. Training and awareness raising are therefore key to lasting positive impact.

Increased awareness – a starting point for building capacity is to increase the knowledge of those involved regarding the issues relevant to their role in the electrification process. This includes providing examples from international experience, including the potential benefits to users (e.g. improved quality of life, income-generating opportunities), the policy frameworks and regulations in place to govern electricity provision (for grid, mini-grids and stand-alone systems), the business case for investors (market scale, risks and potential returns) and cost-effective supply chain models for installers (from the production and delivery of infrastructure to the receipt of electricity
by the user). The limited experience of successful electrification expansion in many developing countries means that input from international sources, appropriately modified to account for the national context, can have great value in raising the awareness of stakeholders, learning the lessons from elsewhere, avoiding mistakes and thereby facilitating a cost-effective electrification process.

Training – the most common route for transferring skills to build capacity of relevant stakeholders is through engagement with experts who can explain and demonstrate the details of the actions required. Such training is often undertaken with groups of individuals who have similar roles, perspectives and needs. This allows one trainer to reach several recipients, but also enables interaction between participants, which can raise new perspectives and issues to resolve. To be effective, such training must have a clear goal with measurable outputs so that the participants can assess their comprehension of the issues and their ability to implement the new skills. With respect to electrification expansion, the requirements of the target groups must be clearly determined in advance and the relevant training components and structure designed accordingly.

Practical application – capacity building is unlikely to be successful if new principles and processes are learned about through knowledge transfer and classroom instruction alone. Whilst this can lead to greater understanding of the issues in the short-term, such information is unlikely to be retained without application in a work context. There is need for the recipients to use their newly acquired skills under the observation of experts/instructors, to gauge their effectiveness and to adjust their approach as necessary. Any efforts to increase the capabilities of key actors for electrification expansion should therefore anticipate a sufficient timeframe to ensure that such skills are fully integrated into the outlooks and performance of stakeholders concerned.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Since capacity building can be applied in all areas of activity related to national electrification activities, each of the other NEA categories can be impacted to some degree. However, there are some categories where capacity building may have a significant effect, such as those indicated below.

	Technology	one of the most frequently identified constraints on mini-grid and standalone system businesses is the lack of staff with the technical skills to install, operate and maintain the equipment. As these businesses start up and enter new markets it is impractical for them to train the staff they need themselves, and a government-led programme of training in coordination with industry associations, academic and technical institutions can give a significant boost to off-grid elements of electrification.
	Delivery Models	Where there is a move from a purely public to private or public-private models, it will be necessary to grow the rather different skills needed in this context. For public-private partnerships in particular, there is often initially a significant difference in perspectives, interests and desired outcomes. For this reason, it is important to build capacity and understanding on both sides of the different views and approaches in order to establish reach agreement on the best approach to increased electrification.
	Legual Basis	For a regulatory structure to work smoothly, both the regulators implementing it and the electricity providers governed by it must understand it well. It is therefore important when developing a regulatory structure to ensure that staff a trained in both the principles underlying it and its practical application, and that information on it is made readily available to electricity providers.
	Price/Tariff Regulation
	Finance	In order to attract private finance electricity will need staff with business skills to develop business models and plans setting out forecast costs, revenues, risks and how they will be managed. Equally for electricity businesses to be cost-effective and sustainable calls for financial management skills. As new businesses enter the sector they will need to access these skills and a government-led programme of business skills training focussed on electricity can be a major benefit to electrification efforts. The appropriate structuring of prices or tariffs is a particular issue that requires a clear understanding of the issues, experiences and results elsewhere, and the preferences of the local stakeholders. Building capacity to understand how prices or tariffs can be structured to cross-subsidise electrification while balancing the needs and interests of different users is critical to establishing a financially viable electrification programme. Local financiers also often lack awareness of the electricity sector and the opportunity it offers them, making them reluctant to lend to both electricity businesses and users, and to place a high price on lending into an area where they feel uncertain of the risks. Capacity building and awareness raising in the financial sector can do much to lower this barrier.
	Other Forms of Non-Financial Interventions	Institutional Restructuring – to accommodate the increasing move from centralised grid extension to decentralised electricity connections, institutions dealing with electricity supply, transmission and distribution have been reformed over several years. This experience, including the lessons learned and subsequent measures taken, will be relevant to developing countries that are currently undergoing a similar transition. This aspect of capacity building will be important to build the capabilities amongst officials that will take responsibility for such restructuring measures. Regulatory Reform – in the same way that institutions must adapt to the new environment for electrification, existing regulations must also be reformed. Regulators are likely to have experience of the conditions necessary for centralised grid expansion, but will be much less familiar with the regulations that are most appropriate for e.g. mini-grids and stand-alone systems in remote areas. Building the capacity of regulators, and the associated government officials in this respect will be essential for effective development of this market. Quality/Technical Standards – although the standards set in any country for power supply must reflect the national perspective, there is extensive international experience with the application of standards. National and international standards bodies have been established to address this issue. Raising awareness of such international experience, and transferring skills and understanding regarding the factors to take into account when setting quality/technical standards for electrification, can have great value. Technical Assistance – technical assistance differs from capacity building and awareness raising in that technical assistance involves directly undertaking activities on behalf of those being supported, whereas capacity building’s aim is to build the skills and understanding of stakeholders to enable them to undertake activities on their own behalf. There is clearly a high degree of commonality between the two approaches and they are often undertaken in concert. Awareness-raising, training and associated measures will often be resisted due to a lack of local resources. International development institutions or national governments can address this constraint by including provision for appropriate capacity building within technical assistance programmes.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of well-targeted capacity building, including raised awareness, is that previously-constrained operators in the electrification sector can be equipped with new skills that enhance their performance and so achieve more successful results. If executed efficiently, any training processes can ensure that recipients are aware of the most recent experience and approaches regarding electrification, and have the capability to apply these measures in their own local context. This will usually lead to increased efficiency of operations in terms of cost-effectiveness, greater impact, reduced timeframes and successful outcomes. A lack of such capacity can limit the potential benefits from intended access to electricity in remote areas.

The only disadvantage related to capacity building is the cost and the time required to complete the relevant transfer of skills and experience. Often this will rely on international sources of expertise, which will be associated with significant charges for the transport of relevant experts to recipient countries, and for their time involved with the instruction of target recipients. Other negative impacts can result from the selection of inappropriate trainers to deliver relevant courses – a mismatch between the skills/experience of the trainer and the needs/expectations of the participants can lead to little value from such interaction. Trainers must also be made clearly aware in advance of the local conditions, customs and approaches in order to make any international capacity-building process worthwhile.

Further Information and Guidance

De Montfort University (2013), Financing Energy Access and Off-grid Electrification: A Review of Status, Options and Challenges https://www.dmu.ac.uk/documents/technology-documents/research-faculties/oasys/project-outputs/peer-reviewed-journal-articles/pj7--financing-energy-access--rser-paper.pdf
UNEP-FI (2012), Financing renewable energy in developing countries http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/Financing_Renewable_Energy_in_subSaharan_Africa.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

Market Information

Definition:

Finance provided by investors or lenders in the expectation of financial returns (profit).

Private finance will be input on commercial terms, meaning that the investor or lender will expect to receive returns that exceed the original investment or loan and at a level that reflects the risks involved. Factors considered by financiers may include risks to implementation, delivery and technology performance, risks of cost escalation, market/demand and credit/payment risks, regulatory and macro-economic risks and external risks such as policy framework and weather. Any financier will require clear information on forecast revenues and potential risks before providing funding. It may be difficult for new electricity businesses working in new markets, and for users without a formal credit-record, to give commercial funders the confidence they require. Finance for electrification may come in the form of equity investment, or capital asset or working capital loans, and may be provided to a business as a whole, to a specific project or to end-users.

Equity - Any equity investment implies partial business ownership, with the investor taking the risk of losing their investment if the electricity venture fails, but also expecting to receive bonus returns if forecast targets are exceeded. Early stage investment in new businesses often relies on finance from entrepreneurial individuals, angel investors or venture capitalists who are willing to take large risks but expect to receive high returns on their investment if it’s successful.

Loans - capital asset loans are used, generally in later stages of business development and on specific projects, to leverage equity investment enabling businesses to scale up and expand their assets. Capital lenders expect repayment of loans over fixed periods and with pre-agreed (fixed or variable) interest rates, so that if profits fall short of forecasts payments are reduced only once equity capital has been exhausted, but if forecasts are exceeded lenders receive no additional benefit.

Working capital- alongside capital investment, most businesses require working capital to bridge the gap between expenditure and receipt of revenues. Working capital is particularly needed by, for instance, solar product businesses, where there may be three months or more between purchase/ import of the product by the business and sale to the end-user.

Sources of finance - Often both international and local finance is required to support electrification – particularly where capital equipment or products are imported. The scale of funding needed for electrification may require international finance, and international financiers may have greater familiarity with, and hence be more comfortable with, some of the issues associated with the energy sector, particularly if their funding is channelled through an international company. However, local private funders will be more familiar with the national context and be more confident in resolving, and hence charge less premium for, risks associated with it. Exchange rate, and hence macro-economic, risks will always be an issue for private financiers where any of the electrification costs are in foreign currency. This issue will be greater where international funding is used to cover more than just import costs, and international funders will be very reluctant to provide finance if repatriation of funds is constrained.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	Most national grid systems are constructed using public funds, though private finance can be introduced through privatisation of existing assets, inviting private generators to feed into the national grid, or establishment of distribution/grid-connected mini-grid concessions. For instance, the introduction of feed-in tariffs (e.g. in Tanzania) has provided the basis for private investment in generation. Mini-grids are more frequently, though by no means always, financed by the private sector since the smaller investment and shorter payback period can reduce the risks and provides a more manageable business opportunity. Stand-alone systems offer even greater opportunities for market-based finance since the relatively short period between purchase and sale to the user means that that only business establishment and a small amount of equipment capital investment is at risk.
	Delivery Models	Application of market-based finance, by definition, requires private sector ownership or a public-private partnership (PPP). PPPs are often an effective way to attract private finance since the public-sector element can offer funding and offset the risk associated with financing of electrification. Any private or PPP financing will require a business model with clear investment requirements and projections of income that provide expected return on investment over an acceptable timeframe, and with acceptable levels of risk and uncertainty.
	Legual Basis	Any private finance provider will consider the legal basis of electrification in terms of the risk profile it presents to them. The lower the risk and the greater certainty, the more likelihood that private finance will be available and at a lower cost. The most fundamental requirement for any private investment in fixed assets is clarity around the legality of operating and selling electricity. This may be provided explicitly through a concession or license, or through a general exclusion of certain types of electricity provision (e.g. mini-grids below a certain size) from the need to be licensed. Without this basic regulatory clarity, and so with the risk that future introduction of regulation may undermine their business and restrict their levels of income, it will be extremely difficult to attract private finance for electrification.
	Price/Tariff Regulation	Is a critical factor for private investment in electrification, with inadequate or inappropriate price/tariff regulation often cited as the key barrier to such finance. Whatever form of price/tariff regulation is used the critical requirement is that it is clear and transparent, as without this, private financiers will see a significant risk of political pressure reducing prices or tariffs to the point below which they fail to cover investment costs.
	Other Forms of Finance	In many cases some other form(s) of public finance such as grants, subsidies, concessionary loans, tax exemptions or guarantees (to reduce investment risks) will be needed alongside private finance to overcome the lack of user spending power and the high costs of early market development. User Finance – Charges paid by users provide the means to repay electricity providers’ loans and equity investments and pay interest and return on capital. Where upfront charges are imposed on users, they may in turn seek to borrow to cover these charges and then repay the loan over time. Alternatively the electricity provider may seek additional finance in order to reduce up-front charges and so minimize barriers to users accessing their services.
	Non-Financial Interventions	Most support activities to assist national electrification will reduce the perceived financial risk and so help to attract private sector investment and sustainable market development. Providing policies and targets, standards and technical assistance for new electrification initiatives will all increase the private financier’s certainty regarding the likely outcomes and so reduce the risk of investment. Market information, capacity building and customer engagement through promotional activity will all have a similar positive effect.

Advantages and Disadvantages

If private finance is attracted, it can support rapid electrification at a large scale, and can free up public funding to be used for other things. If market conditions are such as to attract purely private finance, this indicates that the electrification process will be self-sustaining without dependence upon external grants or subsidies from the government or donor organisations. Where customers are able to pay for electricity at a level that allows the supply to be maintained under market conditions, there is no concern over the withdrawal of public funding that may then prevent continued access to electricity. Experience also indicates that involvement of private finance can drive innovation and efficiencies in electrification as in other sectors.

Private finance, however, requires clear evidence that revenues will provide returns on investment, and this may be an insurmountable barrier, particularly for forms of electrification such as grid and mini-grid systems which have high upfront capital costs that will be recovered over long periods (perhaps 20 years). Even where macro-economic conditions are stable, regulatory frameworks and prices/tariffs transparent, and users able to afford electricity, financiers may be reluctant to provide support in the absence of established companies with a track record of performance. Much time and effort may be expended in the attempt to attract sufficient private finance without the required results. Furthermore, private finance is usually more expensive than general government borrowing and this will particularly be the case for programmes that are seen by the financiers as carrying significant levels of risk.

Further Information and Guidance

De Montfort University (2013), Financing Energy Access and Off-grid Electrification: A Review of Status, Options and Challenges https://www.dmu.ac.uk/documents/technology-documents/research-faculties/oasys/project-outputs/peer-reviewed-journal-articles/pj7--financing-energy-access--rser-paper.pdf
UNEP-FI (2012), Financing renewable energy in developing countries http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/Financing_Renewable_Energy_in_subSaharan_Africa.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

Demand Promotion

Definition:

Finance provided by investors or lenders in the expectation of financial returns (profit).

Private finance will be input on commercial terms, meaning that the investor or lender will expect to receive returns that exceed the original investment or loan and at a level that reflects the risks involved. Factors considered by financiers may include risks to implementation, delivery and technology performance, risks of cost escalation, market/demand and credit/payment risks, regulatory and macro-economic risks and external risks such as policy framework and weather. Any financier will require clear information on forecast revenues and potential risks before providing funding. It may be difficult for new electricity businesses working in new markets, and for users without a formal credit-record, to give commercial funders the confidence they require. Finance for electrification may come in the form of equity investment, or capital asset or working capital loans, and may be provided to a business as a whole, to a specific project or to end-users.

Equity - Any equity investment implies partial business ownership, with the investor taking the risk of losing their investment if the electricity venture fails, but also expecting to receive bonus returns if forecast targets are exceeded. Early stage investment in new businesses often relies on finance from entrepreneurial individuals, angel investors or venture capitalists who are willing to take large risks but expect to receive high returns on their investment if it’s successful.

Loans - capital asset loans are used, generally in later stages of business development and on specific projects, to leverage equity investment enabling businesses to scale up and expand their assets. Capital lenders expect repayment of loans over fixed periods and with pre-agreed (fixed or variable) interest rates, so that if profits fall short of forecasts payments are reduced only once equity capital has been exhausted, but if forecasts are exceeded lenders receive no additional benefit.

Working capital- alongside capital investment, most businesses require working capital to bridge the gap between expenditure and receipt of revenues. Working capital is particularly needed by, for instance, solar product businesses, where there may be three months or more between purchase/ import of the product by the business and sale to the end-user.

Sources of finance - Often both international and local finance is required to support electrification – particularly where capital equipment or products are imported. The scale of funding needed for electrification may require international finance, and international financiers may have greater familiarity with, and hence be more comfortable with, some of the issues associated with the energy sector, particularly if their funding is channelled through an international company. However, local private funders will be more familiar with the national context and be more confident in resolving, and hence charge less premium for, risks associated with it. Exchange rate, and hence macro-economic, risks will always be an issue for private financiers where any of the electrification costs are in foreign currency. This issue will be greater where international funding is used to cover more than just import costs, and international funders will be very reluctant to provide finance if repatriation of funds is constrained.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	Most national grid systems are constructed using public funds, though private finance can be introduced through privatisation of existing assets, inviting private generators to feed into the national grid, or establishment of distribution/grid-connected mini-grid concessions. For instance, the introduction of feed-in tariffs (e.g. in Tanzania) has provided the basis for private investment in generation. Mini-grids are more frequently, though by no means always, financed by the private sector since the smaller investment and shorter payback period can reduce the risks and provides a more manageable business opportunity. Stand-alone systems offer even greater opportunities for market-based finance since the relatively short period between purchase and sale to the user means that that only business establishment and a small amount of equipment capital investment is at risk.
	Delivery Models	Application of market-based finance, by definition, requires private sector ownership or a public-private partnership (PPP). PPPs are often an effective way to attract private finance since the public-sector element can offer funding and offset the risk associated with financing of electrification. Any private or PPP financing will require a business model with clear investment requirements and projections of income that provide expected return on investment over an acceptable timeframe, and with acceptable levels of risk and uncertainty.
	Legual Basis	Any private finance provider will consider the legal basis of electrification in terms of the risk profile it presents to them. The lower the risk and the greater certainty, the more likelihood that private finance will be available and at a lower cost. The most fundamental requirement for any private investment in fixed assets is clarity around the legality of operating and selling electricity. This may be provided explicitly through a concession or license, or through a general exclusion of certain types of electricity provision (e.g. mini-grids below a certain size) from the need to be licensed. Without this basic regulatory clarity, and so with the risk that future introduction of regulation may undermine their business and restrict their levels of income, it will be extremely difficult to attract private finance for electrification.
	Price/Tariff Regulation	Is a critical factor for private investment in electrification, with inadequate or inappropriate price/tariff regulation often cited as the key barrier to such finance. Whatever form of price/tariff regulation is used the critical requirement is that it is clear and transparent, as without this, private financiers will see a significant risk of political pressure reducing prices or tariffs to the point below which they fail to cover investment costs.
	Other Forms of Finance	In many cases some other form(s) of public finance such as grants, subsidies, concessionary loans, tax exemptions or guarantees (to reduce investment risks) will be needed alongside private finance to overcome the lack of user spending power and the high costs of early market development. User Finance – Charges paid by users provide the means to repay electricity providers’ loans and equity investments and pay interest and return on capital. Where upfront charges are imposed on users, they may in turn seek to borrow to cover these charges and then repay the loan over time. Alternatively the electricity provider may seek additional finance in order to reduce up-front charges and so minimize barriers to users accessing their services.
	Non-Financial Interventions	Most support activities to assist national electrification will reduce the perceived financial risk and so help to attract private sector investment and sustainable market development. Providing policies and targets, standards and technical assistance for new electrification initiatives will all increase the private financier’s certainty regarding the likely outcomes and so reduce the risk of investment. Market information, capacity building and customer engagement through promotional activity will all have a similar positive effect.

Advantages and Disadvantages

If private finance is attracted, it can support rapid electrification at a large scale, and can free up public funding to be used for other things. If market conditions are such as to attract purely private finance, this indicates that the electrification process will be self-sustaining without dependence upon external grants or subsidies from the government or donor organisations. Where customers are able to pay for electricity at a level that allows the supply to be maintained under market conditions, there is no concern over the withdrawal of public funding that may then prevent continued access to electricity. Experience also indicates that involvement of private finance can drive innovation and efficiencies in electrification as in other sectors.

Private finance, however, requires clear evidence that revenues will provide returns on investment, and this may be an insurmountable barrier, particularly for forms of electrification such as grid and mini-grid systems which have high upfront capital costs that will be recovered over long periods (perhaps 20 years). Even where macro-economic conditions are stable, regulatory frameworks and prices/tariffs transparent, and users able to afford electricity, financiers may be reluctant to provide support in the absence of established companies with a track record of performance. Much time and effort may be expended in the attempt to attract sufficient private finance without the required results. Furthermore, private finance is usually more expensive than general government borrowing and this will particularly be the case for programmes that are seen by the financiers as carrying significant levels of risk.

Further Information and Guidance

De Montfort University (2013), Financing Energy Access and Off-grid Electrification: A Review of Status, Options and Challenges https://www.dmu.ac.uk/documents/technology-documents/research-faculties/oasys/project-outputs/peer-reviewed-journal-articles/pj7--financing-energy-access--rser-paper.pdf
UNEP-FI (2012), Financing renewable energy in developing countries http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/Financing_Renewable_Energy_in_subSaharan_Africa.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

Technology Development/Adoption

Definition:

Finance provided by investors or lenders in the expectation of financial returns (profit).

Private finance will be input on commercial terms, meaning that the investor or lender will expect to receive returns that exceed the original investment or loan and at a level that reflects the risks involved. Factors considered by financiers may include risks to implementation, delivery and technology performance, risks of cost escalation, market/demand and credit/payment risks, regulatory and macro-economic risks and external risks such as policy framework and weather. Any financier will require clear information on forecast revenues and potential risks before providing funding. It may be difficult for new electricity businesses working in new markets, and for users without a formal credit-record, to give commercial funders the confidence they require. Finance for electrification may come in the form of equity investment, or capital asset or working capital loans, and may be provided to a business as a whole, to a specific project or to end-users.

Equity - Any equity investment implies partial business ownership, with the investor taking the risk of losing their investment if the electricity venture fails, but also expecting to receive bonus returns if forecast targets are exceeded. Early stage investment in new businesses often relies on finance from entrepreneurial individuals, angel investors or venture capitalists who are willing to take large risks but expect to receive high returns on their investment if it’s successful.

Loans - capital asset loans are used, generally in later stages of business development and on specific projects, to leverage equity investment enabling businesses to scale up and expand their assets. Capital lenders expect repayment of loans over fixed periods and with pre-agreed (fixed or variable) interest rates, so that if profits fall short of forecasts payments are reduced only once equity capital has been exhausted, but if forecasts are exceeded lenders receive no additional benefit.

Working capital- alongside capital investment, most businesses require working capital to bridge the gap between expenditure and receipt of revenues. Working capital is particularly needed by, for instance, solar product businesses, where there may be three months or more between purchase/ import of the product by the business and sale to the end-user.

Sources of finance - Often both international and local finance is required to support electrification – particularly where capital equipment or products are imported. The scale of funding needed for electrification may require international finance, and international financiers may have greater familiarity with, and hence be more comfortable with, some of the issues associated with the energy sector, particularly if their funding is channelled through an international company. However, local private funders will be more familiar with the national context and be more confident in resolving, and hence charge less premium for, risks associated with it. Exchange rate, and hence macro-economic, risks will always be an issue for private financiers where any of the electrification costs are in foreign currency. This issue will be greater where international funding is used to cover more than just import costs, and international funders will be very reluctant to provide finance if repatriation of funds is constrained.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	Most national grid systems are constructed using public funds, though private finance can be introduced through privatisation of existing assets, inviting private generators to feed into the national grid, or establishment of distribution/grid-connected mini-grid concessions. For instance, the introduction of feed-in tariffs (e.g. in Tanzania) has provided the basis for private investment in generation. Mini-grids are more frequently, though by no means always, financed by the private sector since the smaller investment and shorter payback period can reduce the risks and provides a more manageable business opportunity. Stand-alone systems offer even greater opportunities for market-based finance since the relatively short period between purchase and sale to the user means that that only business establishment and a small amount of equipment capital investment is at risk.
	Delivery Models	Application of market-based finance, by definition, requires private sector ownership or a public-private partnership (PPP). PPPs are often an effective way to attract private finance since the public-sector element can offer funding and offset the risk associated with financing of electrification. Any private or PPP financing will require a business model with clear investment requirements and projections of income that provide expected return on investment over an acceptable timeframe, and with acceptable levels of risk and uncertainty.
	Legual Basis	Any private finance provider will consider the legal basis of electrification in terms of the risk profile it presents to them. The lower the risk and the greater certainty, the more likelihood that private finance will be available and at a lower cost. The most fundamental requirement for any private investment in fixed assets is clarity around the legality of operating and selling electricity. This may be provided explicitly through a concession or license, or through a general exclusion of certain types of electricity provision (e.g. mini-grids below a certain size) from the need to be licensed. Without this basic regulatory clarity, and so with the risk that future introduction of regulation may undermine their business and restrict their levels of income, it will be extremely difficult to attract private finance for electrification.
	Price/Tariff Regulation	Is a critical factor for private investment in electrification, with inadequate or inappropriate price/tariff regulation often cited as the key barrier to such finance. Whatever form of price/tariff regulation is used the critical requirement is that it is clear and transparent, as without this, private financiers will see a significant risk of political pressure reducing prices or tariffs to the point below which they fail to cover investment costs.
	Other Forms of Finance	In many cases some other form(s) of public finance such as grants, subsidies, concessionary loans, tax exemptions or guarantees (to reduce investment risks) will be needed alongside private finance to overcome the lack of user spending power and the high costs of early market development. User Finance – Charges paid by users provide the means to repay electricity providers’ loans and equity investments and pay interest and return on capital. Where upfront charges are imposed on users, they may in turn seek to borrow to cover these charges and then repay the loan over time. Alternatively the electricity provider may seek additional finance in order to reduce up-front charges and so minimize barriers to users accessing their services.
	Non-Financial Interventions	Most support activities to assist national electrification will reduce the perceived financial risk and so help to attract private sector investment and sustainable market development. Providing policies and targets, standards and technical assistance for new electrification initiatives will all increase the private financier’s certainty regarding the likely outcomes and so reduce the risk of investment. Market information, capacity building and customer engagement through promotional activity will all have a similar positive effect.

Advantages and Disadvantages

If private finance is attracted, it can support rapid electrification at a large scale, and can free up public funding to be used for other things. If market conditions are such as to attract purely private finance, this indicates that the electrification process will be self-sustaining without dependence upon external grants or subsidies from the government or donor organisations. Where customers are able to pay for electricity at a level that allows the supply to be maintained under market conditions, there is no concern over the withdrawal of public funding that may then prevent continued access to electricity. Experience also indicates that involvement of private finance can drive innovation and efficiencies in electrification as in other sectors.

Private finance, however, requires clear evidence that revenues will provide returns on investment, and this may be an insurmountable barrier, particularly for forms of electrification such as grid and mini-grid systems which have high upfront capital costs that will be recovered over long periods (perhaps 20 years). Even where macro-economic conditions are stable, regulatory frameworks and prices/tariffs transparent, and users able to afford electricity, financiers may be reluctant to provide support in the absence of established companies with a track record of performance. Much time and effort may be expended in the attempt to attract sufficient private finance without the required results. Furthermore, private finance is usually more expensive than general government borrowing and this will particularly be the case for programmes that are seen by the financiers as carrying significant levels of risk.

Further Information and Guidance

De Montfort University (2013), Financing Energy Access and Off-grid Electrification: A Review of Status, Options and Challenges https://www.dmu.ac.uk/documents/technology-documents/research-faculties/oasys/project-outputs/peer-reviewed-journal-articles/pj7--financing-energy-access--rser-paper.pdf
UNEP-FI (2012), Financing renewable energy in developing countries http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/Financing_Renewable_Energy_in_subSaharan_Africa.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

National Energy Planning

Definition:

Finance provided by investors or lenders in the expectation of financial returns (profit).

Private finance will be input on commercial terms, meaning that the investor or lender will expect to receive returns that exceed the original investment or loan and at a level that reflects the risks involved. Factors considered by financiers may include risks to implementation, delivery and technology performance, risks of cost escalation, market/demand and credit/payment risks, regulatory and macro-economic risks and external risks such as policy framework and weather. Any financier will require clear information on forecast revenues and potential risks before providing funding. It may be difficult for new electricity businesses working in new markets, and for users without a formal credit-record, to give commercial funders the confidence they require. Finance for electrification may come in the form of equity investment, or capital asset or working capital loans, and may be provided to a business as a whole, to a specific project or to end-users.

Equity - Any equity investment implies partial business ownership, with the investor taking the risk of losing their investment if the electricity venture fails, but also expecting to receive bonus returns if forecast targets are exceeded. Early stage investment in new businesses often relies on finance from entrepreneurial individuals, angel investors or venture capitalists who are willing to take large risks but expect to receive high returns on their investment if it’s successful.

Loans - capital asset loans are used, generally in later stages of business development and on specific projects, to leverage equity investment enabling businesses to scale up and expand their assets. Capital lenders expect repayment of loans over fixed periods and with pre-agreed (fixed or variable) interest rates, so that if profits fall short of forecasts payments are reduced only once equity capital has been exhausted, but if forecasts are exceeded lenders receive no additional benefit.

Working capital- alongside capital investment, most businesses require working capital to bridge the gap between expenditure and receipt of revenues. Working capital is particularly needed by, for instance, solar product businesses, where there may be three months or more between purchase/ import of the product by the business and sale to the end-user.

Sources of finance - Often both international and local finance is required to support electrification – particularly where capital equipment or products are imported. The scale of funding needed for electrification may require international finance, and international financiers may have greater familiarity with, and hence be more comfortable with, some of the issues associated with the energy sector, particularly if their funding is channelled through an international company. However, local private funders will be more familiar with the national context and be more confident in resolving, and hence charge less premium for, risks associated with it. Exchange rate, and hence macro-economic, risks will always be an issue for private financiers where any of the electrification costs are in foreign currency. This issue will be greater where international funding is used to cover more than just import costs, and international funders will be very reluctant to provide finance if repatriation of funds is constrained.

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

	Technology	Most national grid systems are constructed using public funds, though private finance can be introduced through privatisation of existing assets, inviting private generators to feed into the national grid, or establishment of distribution/grid-connected mini-grid concessions. For instance, the introduction of feed-in tariffs (e.g. in Tanzania) has provided the basis for private investment in generation. Mini-grids are more frequently, though by no means always, financed by the private sector since the smaller investment and shorter payback period can reduce the risks and provides a more manageable business opportunity. Stand-alone systems offer even greater opportunities for market-based finance since the relatively short period between purchase and sale to the user means that that only business establishment and a small amount of equipment capital investment is at risk.
	Delivery Models	Application of market-based finance, by definition, requires private sector ownership or a public-private partnership (PPP). PPPs are often an effective way to attract private finance since the public-sector element can offer funding and offset the risk associated with financing of electrification. Any private or PPP financing will require a business model with clear investment requirements and projections of income that provide expected return on investment over an acceptable timeframe, and with acceptable levels of risk and uncertainty.
	Legual Basis	Any private finance provider will consider the legal basis of electrification in terms of the risk profile it presents to them. The lower the risk and the greater certainty, the more likelihood that private finance will be available and at a lower cost. The most fundamental requirement for any private investment in fixed assets is clarity around the legality of operating and selling electricity. This may be provided explicitly through a concession or license, or through a general exclusion of certain types of electricity provision (e.g. mini-grids below a certain size) from the need to be licensed. Without this basic regulatory clarity, and so with the risk that future introduction of regulation may undermine their business and restrict their levels of income, it will be extremely difficult to attract private finance for electrification.
	Price/Tariff Regulation	Is a critical factor for private investment in electrification, with inadequate or inappropriate price/tariff regulation often cited as the key barrier to such finance. Whatever form of price/tariff regulation is used the critical requirement is that it is clear and transparent, as without this, private financiers will see a significant risk of political pressure reducing prices or tariffs to the point below which they fail to cover investment costs.
	Other Forms of Finance	In many cases some other form(s) of public finance such as grants, subsidies, concessionary loans, tax exemptions or guarantees (to reduce investment risks) will be needed alongside private finance to overcome the lack of user spending power and the high costs of early market development. User Finance – Charges paid by users provide the means to repay electricity providers’ loans and equity investments and pay interest and return on capital. Where upfront charges are imposed on users, they may in turn seek to borrow to cover these charges and then repay the loan over time. Alternatively the electricity provider may seek additional finance in order to reduce up-front charges and so minimize barriers to users accessing their services.
	Non-Financial Interventions	Most support activities to assist national electrification will reduce the perceived financial risk and so help to attract private sector investment and sustainable market development. Providing policies and targets, standards and technical assistance for new electrification initiatives will all increase the private financier’s certainty regarding the likely outcomes and so reduce the risk of investment. Market information, capacity building and customer engagement through promotional activity will all have a similar positive effect.

Advantages and Disadvantages

If private finance is attracted, it can support rapid electrification at a large scale, and can free up public funding to be used for other things. If market conditions are such as to attract purely private finance, this indicates that the electrification process will be self-sustaining without dependence upon external grants or subsidies from the government or donor organisations. Where customers are able to pay for electricity at a level that allows the supply to be maintained under market conditions, there is no concern over the withdrawal of public funding that may then prevent continued access to electricity. Experience also indicates that involvement of private finance can drive innovation and efficiencies in electrification as in other sectors.

Private finance, however, requires clear evidence that revenues will provide returns on investment, and this may be an insurmountable barrier, particularly for forms of electrification such as grid and mini-grid systems which have high upfront capital costs that will be recovered over long periods (perhaps 20 years). Even where macro-economic conditions are stable, regulatory frameworks and prices/tariffs transparent, and users able to afford electricity, financiers may be reluctant to provide support in the absence of established companies with a track record of performance. Much time and effort may be expended in the attempt to attract sufficient private finance without the required results. Furthermore, private finance is usually more expensive than general government borrowing and this will particularly be the case for programmes that are seen by the financiers as carrying significant levels of risk.

Further Information and Guidance

De Montfort University (2013), Financing Energy Access and Off-grid Electrification: A Review of Status, Options and Challenges https://www.dmu.ac.uk/documents/technology-documents/research-faculties/oasys/project-outputs/peer-reviewed-journal-articles/pj7--financing-energy-access--rser-paper.pdf
UNEP-FI (2012), Financing renewable energy in developing countries http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/Financing_Renewable_Energy_in_subSaharan_Africa.pdf

Relevante Case Studies:

References

Authors

Authors: Mary Willcox, Dean Cooper

Acknowledgements

The Review was prepared by Mary Willcox and Dean Cooper of Practical Action Consulting working with Hadley Taylor, Silvia Cabriolu-Poddu and Christina Stuart of the EU Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility (EUEIPDF) and Michael Koeberlein and Caspar Priesemann of the Energising Development Programme (EnDev). It is based on a literature review, stakeholder consultations. The categorization framework in the review tool is based on the EUEI/PDF / Practical Action publication "Building Energy Access Markets - A Value Chain Analysis of Key Energy Market Systems".

A wider range of stakeholders were consulted during its preparation and we would particularly like to thank the following for their valuable contributions and insights: - Jeff Felten, AfDB - Marcus Wiemann and other members, ARE - Guilherme Collares Pereira, EdP - David Otieno Ochieng, EUEI-PDF - Silvia Luisa Escudero Santos Ascarza, EUEI-PDF - Nico Peterschmidt, Inensus - John Tkacik, REEEP - Khorommbi Bongwe, South Africa: Department of Energy - Rashid Ali Abdallah, African Union Commission - Nicola Bugatti, ECREEE - Getahun Moges Kifle, Ethiopian Energy Authority - Mario Merchan Andres, EUEI-PDF - Tatjana Walter-Breidenstein, EUEI-PDF - Rebecca Symington, Mlinda Foundation - Marcel Raats, RVO.NL - Nico Tyabji, Sunfunder -

Any feedback would be very welcome. If you have any comments or enquires please contact: mary.willcox@practicalaction.org.uk, benjamin.attigah@euei-pdf.org, or caspar.priesemann@giz.de.

Download the Tool as a Power Point: https://energypedia.info/images/a/aa/National_Approaches_to_Electrification_-_Review_of_Options.pptx

►Go to Top

Search

National Approaches to Electrification – Non-Financial Interventions

Direct Energy Access Provision

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Institutional Restructuring

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Regulatory Reform

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Policy & Target Setting

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Quality/Technical Standards

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Technical Assistance

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories

Advantages and Disadvantages (Including Level of Electrification Provided)

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Capacity Building/Awarness Raising

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Market Information

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Demand Promotion

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

Technology Development/Adoption

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

National Energy Planning

Internactions wiht other NAE Categories:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Further Information and Guidance

Relevante Case Studies:

References

Authors

Acknowledgements

Navigation

⧼timis-pagehighlighted⧽

⧼timis-pagenamespaces⧽

⧼timis-pagetranslate⧽

Page tools

Page tools

Partners & Networks of energypedia

Sponsors of energypedia