Promoting Rural Development through Mobility

Rural Transport and Territorial Development

Rural development involves more than just agricultural production: it is also closely linked to the economic utilisation of these products and the provision of basic social and economic services (see also article: Access to Transport). At local village level health and education facilities, supplies of means of production, alternative economic sectors and income-earning opportunities are often non-existent or very basic, making access to these things difficult.
Supra-regional links must therefore be improved or created in order to improve the socio-economic position of the rural population. Infrastructure measures make it easier for rural dwellers to link into regional and supra-regional economic life, and also facilitate access in the reverse direction. The previous local focus must therefore be replaced by greater territorial and even supra-territorial openness. Territorial development (GIZ 2012) therefore involves organising planning and construction processes according to the subsidiarity principle, with corresponding funding. This development can take place along one or more axes (country development axes) or corridors that are based on main transport arteries and use secondary transport routes as links.

Impacts of Infrastructure Measures

The positive impacts of infrastructure measures in the transport sector are therefore particularly large if they are embedded in a strategy of territorial development – that is, in a balanced development plan that involves the entire region. An important aspect of such plans is a functional and administratively well-organised division of labour between spatial centres, sub-centres and sparsely populated areas, and between different organisations and institutions. Despite being closely linked to other packages of measures, the impacts of investment in infrastructure as a component of spatial development and land-use planning are relatively easy to measure. These impacts include the following:

• Raw materials can be delivered both faster and more cheaply to distant markets, and can more readily be processed locally --> regional and supra-regional sale and producation of sensitive and local products. Moreover, markets in neighbouring regions can be accessed and diversified.
  
• Price fluctuations can be exploited more quickly and more promptly.
• It is easier for purchasers to access producers.
  
• It becomes easier to establish economic opportunities social services, such as health and education, and access to these services is therefore improved.
  
• The availability of means of production (tools, machinery, seed, fertiliser) is improved.
  
• Professional advice services, including private ones, can more readily be provided in rural areas.
  
• The need of urban population groups for nearby recreational facilities opens up new development potentials and alternative income-generating opportunities
  
• Transport costs are reduced; as a result, goods become cheaper for producers, traders and end consumers. Journeys become both shorter and faster.
• The risks arising from transport difficulties or failures are reduced. Transport materials are saved and there is less damage to goods.
  
• There is greater scope for inter-municipal links and inter-municipal exchange. Contact between local government workers and the rural population is improved --> participation in political events.
  
• Construction projects commissioned by local authorities (e.g. erosion control measures, construction of markets, stores or grain banks) can be completed faster and at lower cost.
  
• Transport routes stimulate the migration of labour. Rural areas benefit from additional investment and innovation as a result of remittances and the return of migrants.
  

The main beneficiaries are often women who derive little added value from agricultural production in itself or are not involved in it economically, but depend on the processing of agricultural commodities and hence on their export out of the region. Local and national government bodies will also benefit through better forestry controls, more reliable collection of taxes and duties and better supervision.

Corridors that are initially established purely for transport purposes can also have a beneficial knock-on effect on territorial development, since they can be designed to link a number of territorial areas. Trunk roads typically lead from the capital city to a neighbouring country via another large city, passing through several rural communities on the way. By means of rural and inter-village paths, these communities link their territory to the trunk road and hence to larger cities and to neighbouring provinces and countries, as well as to neighbouring communities. The trunk roads are used as corridors, from which access is created at both local/community and national/international levels. For landlocked countries, corridors to free ports in coastal countries are important. The transport activities themselves create new economic opportunities, which open up along these corridors. These potentials also radiate into the hinterland. It is therefore justifiable to state that corridors can become real axes of development.

Stakeholders, Competencies and Responsiblities

Infrastructure measures are the means whereby the issue of territorial development at political and administrative level is put into practice. It is therefore particularly important to promote specially designated and planned corridors that provide a channel for lucrative flows of goods and services or that link areas of economic potential with each other, in order to create the best possible links with the adjacent rural area. This can be achieved by improving links to existing rural route networks, for example, or by promoting use of the corridors. Improving the accessibility of rural areas imposes additional tasks, duties and responsibilities on municipalities and (deconcentrated/decentralised) state services.

Work on rural transport routes is usually commissioned by a municipality or other regional or local body that has a vested interest in improving the economy in its rural areas but also finds itself confronted with new challenges. In the first place, maintaining and repairing the infrastructure will give rise to significant costs. Secondly, adverse effects are also likely, particularly in relation to natural resources.
These issues are the responsibility of the municipalities and decentralised government bodies, which are therefore of prime importance in the list of stakeholders.

• The state is the highest planning authority (planning sovereignty; drawing up and implementing master plans) with ultimate financial authority over the national budget.
• State bodes as representatives of the state authority at decentralised level take on planning, training, instructional and monitoring tasks in connection with technical implementation of infrastructure measures.
• The territorial authorities (e.g. municipalities) or other local and regional bodies have initial jurisdiction for all development measures in rural areas, and as commissioners of the construction work they are responsible for the needs analysis, technical planning, invitations to tender, initiation of the measures and technical, financial and administrative management. Ensuring sustainability – for example through repair and maintenance work – is particularly important here. Local and regional authorities should detail all development measures – especially those involving transport development – in their development plans or in local development strategies and take responsibility for implementing them. These development measures should be coordinated and adapted at both local/municipal and national/trans-national levels.
• Local bodies such as village development committees play an active part in needs analysis, implementation and maintenance.
• Technical and financial partners support implementation by funding and supervising measures in the areas of capacity building, planning, implementation and management of construction measures and by supporting the economic development process.
• The same applies to projects that operate by arrangement with state bodies and local authorities and to organisations such as NGOs, associations, societies and foundations.
• Private companies and private service providers work on a contract basis or are involved through PPPs.
  

Road maintenance work is often the responsibility of local authorities

Need for Intervention

In many countries the decentralised bodies at regional and local level are recently established, have poorly trained staff and are often not fully operational. Skills and capacities are poorly developed. Frequently no funds at all are available for ensuring sustainability, carrying out maintenance and repairs, commissioning private companies or maintaining political and administrative links with other local authorities.

The responsibilities and duties of these bodies (such as local community authorities) are being significantly increased: this entails major risks, since in rural areas responsibility often lies no longer with the state but with these very bodies and structures at regional and local level. The bodies concerned are often unequal to the workload and the degree of challenge and are unable to carry out their duties in full. Since state services (even deconcentrated ones) are often very bureaucratic and slow to respond, it is important that tasks such as implementation and maintenance are decentralised. If the regional aspect is not taken into account at planning level, it will be hard to implement at municipal and local level.

Purely technical expertise usually exists at national level but at regional level it is likely to be in short supply or difficult to access. Although the situation in this regard varies widely between countries and regional structures take different forms, the principal need for action (in addition to financial support) is for capacity development in the following areas:

• responsibilities – rights – duties
• planning approval procedures – environmental assessments – development plans
• administrative and financial procedures (tendering process)
• compensation
• authority over transport routes
• explanation of the applicable legal framework
  

The following questions should therefore be considered in connection with all measures that affect the territorial aspect:

• What legal rights does the state grant to regional and local bodies?
• Can they conclude contracts independently? Are they allowed their own bank accounts? Can they act in the name of the local population without restriction?
• How can the interaction between the macro, meso and micro levels be organised with regard to mobility?
• What right of input and what influence do state, national and regional authorities and bodies have in relation to municipal and village-level decision-making, and vice versa?

Road safety measures in a rural area of Bangladesh

Starting Points in the Transport Sector

Planning at National and Regional Level (Transport Master Plans)

National transport planning falls within the remit of national development strategies drawn up by governments (National Development Plans, Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS), etc.). These plans define strategic goals, detailing how the transport sector can contribute to the country’s development. The ministry of transport usually draws up a national transport strategy with a policy programme for the transport sector and targets for each transport sub-sector are laid down. Finally, a national transport master plan is drawn up; this puts the requirements of the transport strategy into practice, provides specific recommendations for action and sets priorities. The master plan is a guideline for the systematised long-term development of the transport sector and it defines the role of each mode of transport. It supports regional and sectoral development policy and plans trans-regional transport between the main centres.

Rural communities are particularly dependent on reliable transport routes and transport services to meet their everyday needs for water and firewood and provide access to their fields. Despite this, rural roads and tracks are often poorly planned and funds for building and maintaining the network of rural roads and tracks are often scarce or non-existent. Careful prioritisation is therefore needed, and regional development plans need to be drawn up to operationalise the national strategies at regional level. This is usually the responsibility of regional and local governments. In practice it has proved to be useful to locate responsibility for the rural route network at regional or local level. This enables the needs of the local population to be properly considered and increases the sense of ownership of the roads and tracks.

Regional plans often integrate the transport sector with other areas such as education, health, economic development, energy and water. The first step should be to assess the mobility needs of the rural population and to identify – in the light of geographic, climatic and socio-political conditions – what means of transport and what infrastructure are needed to meet these needs. A rural route network, which from the perspective of the country as a whole and the national economy is always secondary, should usually be viewed in the context of a primary national transport network. In rural areas, decisions about infrastructure development must be based not only on economic considerations; it is important that they also take account of social criteria (such as the poverty rate). Important routes in rural areas are pedestrian access to the nearest school or health clinic, routes that enable smallholders and small-scale farmers to access the nearest market, at least with hand carts, and links that connect villages to the nearest road that is passable year-round for motor vehicles. Access to transport services should always be considered when setting up new health and education facilities. Similarly, water points or firewood plantations need to be located close to the consumer. When providing goods, it is important to ensure that they can be readily transported and are appropriate for the means of transport to be used (e.g. inputs such as fertiliser need to be packed in sizes that enable them to be taken to farms on foot).

One of the aims of integrated regional planning should be to ensure that infrastructure-related investment and running costs are manageable. Routes for non-motorised traffic should therefore be promoted as well as motorised transport routes. Women benefit particularly from improved accessibility at local village level: they have little access to means of transport but at the same time they often bear the main burden of the family’s mobility needs.

A widely used approach has been developed by the International Labour Organization (ILO) under the name Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning, IRAP (Donnges 2003). IRAP aims to improve rural transport systems and the distribution of and access to facilities and services. As part of the scheme various instruments have been developed that can be adapted to the specific requirements of each country and region.

Infrastructure

Appropriate Methods of Building Rural Roads

Demand-oriented, labour-intensive, climate-resilient: Approaches to rural road-building
Rural transport infrastructure takes many forms. In most countries trans-regional transport is catered for by well-built roads, and in some cases waterways and railways, which pass through rural regions, and this is supplemented by a frequently extensive network of secondary roads, tracks and paths. As has been described in Section 2.2.1, these secondary routes provide access to routes to cities and more distant regions, and they play a particularly important part in enabling the rural population to obtain everyday supplies. Development cooperation programmes therefore focus not only on developing main transport arteries but also on renewing and developing secondary roads and tracks, and to a lesser extent, too, on improving routes for non-motorised traffic for use by pedestrians or pack animals. These routes do not always appear on maps or in road classifications and they are usually used and maintained by the local population.

Figure 22: Secondary roads are often used and maintained only by the local population. Photo: Gunter Zietlow, Panama.
The type of route that is appropriate and the materials that should be used depend in any specific case on many factors. If roads are used by heavy lorries or if heavy rainfall is frequent, asphalt roads are appropriate. Where routes carry little traffic or are used mainly by pedestrians and cyclists, work can focus on improving gravel and laterite tracks and simple field paths. Construction costs and the affordability of subsequent maintenance are important considerations here (see Section 3.2.2.2).
An example illustrates the figures involved. An analysis of 115 transport infrastructure projects in Africa funded by international donors found that the average cost of renewing asphalt roads or asphalting existing gravel roads was about US$300,000 per lane kilometre, and that regular maintenance cost roughly US$150,000 on top of this. By contrast, the cost of re-gravelling a path was only about US$16,000 per lane kilometre (AICD 2008). Direct contribution to poverty reduction: Labour-intensive road and path construction
Significant investment in rural transport infrastructure often has great potential for direct and short-term poverty reduction in the area in which the construction work is carried out. For many years, therefore, labour-intensive work has been the approach used.1 For each dollar of capital spent, this generates up to seven times as much employment as conventional road-building (McCucheon 2008). At the heart of this approach is the principle of involving the local population in construction and preparing them to take responsibility for road maintenance activities. Where possible, heavy machinery is not used, provided that this does not adversely affect the required construction quality and that the necessary construction standards can be met. This also reduces adverse environmental impacts during the construction phase. Where local resources so permit, construction materials from the region can also be used. For example, a German cooperation project supported the construction of cobbled roads in Rwanda, where the economic situation and the tradition of skilled masonry work in natural stone made the use of natural stone cobbles for road-building entirely appropriate (see the Rwanda project example in the appendix).
The advantages of labour-intensive road- and path-building projects are now well documented. As a result of the greater emphasis on gender aspects, more women are now being employed in many programmes; this enables the women not only to earn an income for themselves and their families but ideally also to improve their standing in society (see also the Bangladesh project example in the appendix). At the same time, however, experience of labour-intensive projects also shows that such measures require careful planning, thorough training of participants and a sound strategy for the funding of subsequent maintenance (see also Section 3.2.2.2). Without these things the sustainability of the initial investment and the development impacts above and beyond the short-term employment effect cannot be guaranteed.
Planning and building with an eye to the future: The challenges of climate change
The rural transport infrastructure in many newly industrialising and developing countries is increasingly at risk from the consequences of climate change. More intensive and longer-lasting heat waves damage the materials used for road surfacing, while heavy rain and more frequent floods make many roads and tracks temporarily or even permanently impassable. These factors must be taken into account when investment in the rural transport network is being considered. Vulnerability analysis is a useful first step. Such an analysis shows which regions will be affected in the medium to long term by which impacts of climate change. This enables the need for adaptation to be identified not only in relation to the rural infrastructure but also for the rural area and its inhabitants as a whole. As a rule, higher design standards for roads and tracks usually involve higher costs and more elaborate construction measures. The latter, in particular, may sometimes conflict with the principles of labour-intensive work described above. Analysis of flood damage to rural paths in Cambodia after the devastating monsoon rains of 2011 has shown that tracks built using labour-intensive methods were particularly badly affected.
At the same time, it is necessary to set priorities. Not every road and path can be built or repaired to the highest standards in the short term. What is needed here is forward-looking planning that takes account of numerous considerations: How will rural communities in general be affected by climate change, and what changes in mobility behaviour are to be expected in consequence? What roads and paths are important during and after climate-induced events to ensure a minimum of access to basic services and to workplaces? In the event of a disaster, what routes must be passable for purposes of evacuation or the deployment of aid forces, and what routes might fulfil a second function, for example as a final refuge from floods (as in the case of elevated road embankments in Bangladesh). Such considerations are important in order to set priorities for investment that take the impacts of extreme climate events into account.

Figure 23: Road flooded after heavy rain. Photo: Gunter Zietlow, Nicaragua.

Maintenance and Financing of Transport Routes

Transport routes can only be of lasting benefit if they are conserved and maintained long-term. By comparison with new investment, the level of annual expenditure required for this is low (approx. 2.5 per cent of the replacement value of the entire road network). German development cooperation projects in the area of road infrastructure should therefore focus primarily on effective maintenance of the road network. Using foreign finance to build new roads or extend existing ones should not be considered unless the sectoral and institutional conditions for effective road maintenance are in place (BMZ 2000).

Figure 24: Maintaining roads in good condition is a major challenge for many countries. Photo: Gerhard Metschies, Tibet, China, 2002. Responsibility for maintaining the primary road network is usually located at national level, while secondary and rural roads are frequently the responsibility of the municipalities. Decentralisation of decision-making powers requires municipalities to have the necessary financial budgets permanently available; they also need technical support and help with maintenance planning from the government. Roads in rural areas are predominantly gravel and laterite roads or unpaved tracks. Regular maintenance is therefore usually feasible without major technology or use of machines, and it can be quickly learned. The relevant training must be provided by the government. If high seasonal rainfall or extensive use by heavy lorries puts the road paving under severe strain, technical assistance as well as increased funding must be made available. In Costa Rica a German development cooperation project has supported a participatory model for renovating and maintaining roads. While government institutions such as the Ministry of Public Works and Transport and local authorities provide the necessary machines and materials, the civil population takes responsibility for the manual labour required for road maintenance. Citizens receive training in maintenance, identify with road maintenance, help obtain funding and hence assume responsibility for the rural roads. The planning of maintenance programmes for little-used roads in rural areas requires the application of special models. Merely capturing the data relating to traffic volumes and road condition, as needed by widely used models for assessing maintenance methods (such as the World Bank’s Highway Development and Management Model, HDM) would overtax the available resources. Supporting decision-making in relation to maintenance of roads with low traffic volumes calls for models that use simplified means of measuring traffic volumes, vehicle operating costs and time costs and other appropriate replacement indicators such as traffic safety, benefits for non-motorised transport, social function and environmental effects (such as the World Bank’s Roads Economic Decision Model). Road maintenance is under-financed in most countries. The World Bank’s Road Maintenance Initiative (RMI) has established that national budgets for road maintenance and road-building in Africa rarely cover more than 30 per cent of the need; in the case of rural roads, funding is usually even more inadequate. The funding of maintenance is managed in different ways in the developing countries. In recent years many countries have introduced road funds that are designed to enable funding to be more independent of national budgets, instead involving contributions from road users in the form of fuel surcharges or levies on heavy lorries. Only in exceptional cases can road-use charges be set so high that they cover the cost of maintaining and repairing the entire road network. In addition, the maintenance of rural roads cannot be considered from a purely economic perspective, since on the basis of economic criteria alone such roads would often not be worth maintaining. This means that for little-used roads a policy of levies and charges on the ‘polluter pays’ principle is not feasible. As a result, the road funds often cover only the primary road network completely, while secondary and rural roads are cross-subsided, with a certain proportion being provided from the road fund. In Namibia the charges paid by road users are used only for roads whose economic benefit can be demonstrated. ‘Social roads’ are still funded from the state budget. Overall, therefore, the importance of road funds for the maintenance and repair of rural roads is small. A performance-related contract system provides the state bodies that transfer funds for road maintenance to local governments with a degree of assurance that these funds are being used appropriately. Performance-related pay ensures that quality standards are complied with, and through flexible working practices it makes it easier for women to enter employment. For example, in Bangladesh, the jobs in maintenance created through the development scheme not only generated additional income for families but also enabled women in particular to be integrated long-term into the labour market, which boosted their self-confidence and their standing in the eyes of men.

Assuming responsibility for the road network provides municipalities with opportunities to use their limited funds for maintenance and repair in the ways that yield the greatest benefit for the district. It enables them to set their own priorities for maintenance or to reduce maintenance costs, for example by introducing locally adapted road-building standards (e.g. reduced carriageway width). Another option is to find local sources of funding for road maintenance (e.g. market charges). Mine owners and local businesses that generate high volumes of heavy traffic should make an appropriate contribution to the costs of road building and maintenance. This should apply not only to roads that the mines or businesses need in order to operate and in which the business owners therefore have a vested interested: other infrastructure commitments in the region should be undertaken through concessions.