Difference between revisions of "Risks in Energy Access Projects"

From energypedia
***** (***** | *****)
***** (***** | *****)
m
 
(104 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown)
Line 2: Line 2:
 
= Overview<br/> =
 
= Overview<br/> =
  
Mini-grids and stand-alone systems play an important role when facilitating energy access in developing countries with improved technology. However there are potential risks to be considered in spite of the financing scheme applied and the type of technology. Painuly (2001)<ref name="Painuly (2001)">Painuly, Jyoti Prasad, ‘Barriers to renewable energy penetration; a framework for analysis’, Renewable Energy 24, 2001. http://www1.upme.gov.co/SGIC/sites/default/files/Barriers%20to%20renewable%20energy%20penetration.pdf</ref> in Hazelton ''et al.'' (2015)<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">Hazelton, James; Bruce, Anna; MacGill Iain, ‘A review of the potential benefits and risks of photovoltaic hybrid mini-grid systems’, Renewable Energy 67, 2013. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259298363_A_review_of_the_potential_benefits_and_risks_of_photovoltaic_hybrid_mini-grid_systems </ref> states that unawareness and misinterpretation of risks (and benefits) are a major barrier for technology adoption.
+
Mini-grids and stand-alone systems play an important role when facilitating energy access in developing countries. However, despite the financing scheme and the type of technology applied, there are potential risks to be considered.<br/>
 +
 
 +
Painuly (2001)<ref name="Painuly (2001)">Painuly, Jyoti Prasad, ‘Barriers to renewable energy penetration; a framework for analysis’, Renewable Energy 24, 2001. http://www1.upme.gov.co/SGIC/sites/default/files/Barriers%20to%20renewable%20energy%20penetration.pdf</ref> in Hazelton ''et al.'' (2015)<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">Hazelton, James; Bruce, Anna; MacGill Iain, ‘A review of the potential benefits and risks of photovoltaic hybrid mini-grid systems’, Renewable Energy 67, 2013. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259298363_A_review_of_the_potential_benefits_and_risks_of_photovoltaic_hybrid_mini-grid_systems </ref> states that unawareness and misinterpretation of risks (and benefits) are a major barrier for technology adoption.&nbsp;
 +
 
 +
Therefore a de-risking approach along the entire life cycle of a project is necessary in order to ensure its success and sustainability.
 +
 
 +
This article includes:
 +
 
 +
*An example of activities that can be carried out during a projects’ preparation as guidance on how to be aware of risks.
 +
*An extensive list of risks organized in six sub-categories based on literature review and field experience in monitoring. For most of the risks there are suggestions on how to minimize, mitigate or controll them during the life cycle of a project.
 +
*The four main steps of risk management are presented in a graph that encapsulates the essentials of this iterative process. In addition, there is an explanation on how to prioritize risks according to the dimensions of their probability to occur and their impact potential.
 +
*At the end the reader can consider revising some experiences applying de-risking approaches for rural electrification projects (mini-grids and hydro), as well as further reading about risks management for renewable energy systems.
  
 
<br/>
 
<br/>
  
= Project preparation and de-risking approach<ref name="SE4All">SE4All Advisory Board's Finance Committee, 'Scaling Up FInance for Sustainable Energy Investments, 2015. http://www.se4all.org/sites/default/files/SE4All-Advisory-Board-Finance-Committee-Report.pdf</ref><br/> =
+
= De-risking Approach During Project Preparation<br/> =
  
Not well-prepared projects reduce their chances of receiving funding and miss important opportunities<span style="font-size: 0.85em;">, additionally governments usually do not invest in project preparation except if there is a chance of attracting funding. Among the key factors challenging properproject preparation, identified in a report about </span>[http://www.se4all.org/sites/default/files/SE4All-Advisory-Board-Finance-Committee-Report.pdf scaling-up finance for sustainable energy investments of SE4All]<span style="font-size: 0.85em;">, point to:&nbsp;</span>
+
Not well-prepared projects reduce their chances of receiving funding and miss important opportunities. For example, governments usually do not invest in project preparation except if there is a chance of attracting funding. A report about [http://www.se4all.org/sites/default/files/SE4All-Advisory-Board-Finance-Committee-Report.pdf scaling-up finance for sustainable energy investments of SE4All] identifies as key factors that challenge project preparation:
  
 
#Lack of adequate project preparation funding for all phases of preparation.
 
#Lack of adequate project preparation funding for all phases of preparation.
#Lack of government capacity to prepare good quality projects.
+
#Lack of capacity to prepare good quality projects.
 
#Absence of institutional vehicle for project preparation.
 
#Absence of institutional vehicle for project preparation.
  
Project preparation also requires a sound project structure to reduce uncertainities and allocate risks and reduce uncertainty. In many instances during the preparation teh focus is on different phases of the project cycle, rathen than on all, especially in the earlier stages.
+
In this sense, for a successful project preparation it is important to list all possible risks associated to the project. During any project preparation it is required a sound project structure to reduce uncertainties and allocate risks. However, often the focus is on some phases of the project cycle, rather than on all, often neglecting the earlier stages. This could later lead to an inadequate risk oversight and consequently to an unsuccessful and unsustainable project. Applying a de-risking approach consists of a series of activities to reduce the occurrence of risks or their influence at any point in a project's life. This is also known as 'Risk-management', and its fundamentals are the process of identifying risks, analysing them, determining the degree of tolerance and consequently accepting or designating mitigation or control actions.
  
An appropriate project preparation should include a range of activities and outputs across the entire project cycle, an example of a governmental project preparation is presented in the&nbsp;<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); font-size: 0.85em;">report </span>[http://www.se4all.org/sites/default/files/SE4All-Advisory-Board-Finance-Committee-Report.pdf SE4All]&nbsp;report:
+
An appropriate project preparation should include a range of activities and outputs across the entire project cycle, an example of a governmental project preparation is presented in the [http://www.se4all.org/sites/default/files/SE4All-Advisory-Board-Finance-Committee-Report.pdf SE4All] report:
  
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
+
{| style="width: 100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1"
 +
|+ '''Table 1: Project preparation <ref name="SE4All">SE4All Advisory Board's Finance Committee, 'Scaling Up FInance for Sustainable Energy Investments, 2015. http://www.se4all.org/sites/default/files/SE4All-Advisory-Board-Finance-Committee-Report.pdf</ref>'''
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width:151px;height:43px;" | <p style="text-align: center;">'''&nbsp;Project cycle phases'''</p>
+
| style="width:151px; height:43px" | <p style="text-align: center">'''&nbsp;Project cycle phases'''</p>
| style="width:127px;height:43px;" | <p style="text-align: center;">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;'''Processes'''</p>
+
| style="width:127px; height:43px" | <p style="text-align: center">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;'''Processes'''</p>
| style="width:157px;height:43px;" | <p style="text-align: center;">'''&nbsp; Detailed activities'''</p>
+
| style="width:157px; height:43px" | <p style="text-align: center">'''&nbsp; Detailed activities'''</p>
| style="width:175px;height:43px;" | <p style="text-align: center;">'''&nbsp; &nbsp;Examples of required outputs'''</p>
+
| style="width:175px; height:43px" | <p style="text-align: center">'''&nbsp; &nbsp;Examples of required outputs'''</p>
 
|-
 
|-
| rowspan="2" style="width:151px;height:78px;" |  
+
| rowspan="2" style="width:151px; height:78px" |  
 
'''Early stage'''
 
'''Early stage'''
  
 
Concept development
 
Concept development
  
| style="width:127px;height:78px;" |  
+
| style="width:127px; height:78px" |  
 
Project identification and concept development
 
Project identification and concept development
  
| style="width:157px;height:78px;" |  
+
| style="width:157px; height:78px" |  
 
Sector planning, project identification and screening
 
Sector planning, project identification and screening
  
| style="width:175px;height:78px;" |  
+
| style="width:175px; height:78px" |  
 
Sector policy papers
 
Sector policy papers
  
Line 44: Line 56:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width:127px;height:82px;" |  
+
| style="width:127px; height:82px" |  
 
Establishing the enabling environment
 
Establishing the enabling environment
  
| style="width:157px;height:82px;" |  
+
| style="width:157px; height:82px" |  
 
Identifying legal/ regulatory/ institutional and other impediments and rectifying them
 
Identifying legal/ regulatory/ institutional and other impediments and rectifying them
  
| style="width:175px;height:82px;" |  
+
| style="width:175px; height:82px" |  
 
Laws
 
Laws
  
Line 58: Line 70:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| rowspan="4" style="width:151px;height:85px;" |  
+
| rowspan="4" style="width:151px; height:85px" |  
 
'''Mid to late stage'''
 
'''Mid to late stage'''
  
 
Feasibility, structuring and transacting
 
Feasibility, structuring and transacting
  
| style="width:127px;height:85px;" |  
+
| style="width:127px; height:85px" |  
 
Due diligence
 
Due diligence
  
| style="width:157px;height:85px;" |  
+
| style="width:157px; height:85px" |  
 
Detailed financial, legal, engineering, environmental and social appraisals
 
Detailed financial, legal, engineering, environmental and social appraisals
  
| style="width:175px;height:85px;" |  
+
| style="width:175px; height:85px" |  
 
Reports that validate and develop concept further
 
Reports that validate and develop concept further
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width:127px;height:44px;" |  
+
| style="width:127px; height:44px" |  
 
Project structuring
 
Project structuring
  
| style="width:157px;height:44px;" |  
+
| style="width:157px; height:44px" |  
 
Detailed financial and legal structuring
 
Detailed financial and legal structuring
  
| style="width:175px;height:44px;" |  
+
| style="width:175px; height:44px" |  
 
Financial models
 
Financial models
  
Line 85: Line 97:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width:127px;height:87px;" |  
+
| style="width:127px; height:87px" |  
 
Marketing
 
Marketing
  
| style="width:157px;height:87px;" |  
+
| style="width:157px; height:87px" |  
 
Promotion of the project and assessment of private sector interest
 
Promotion of the project and assessment of private sector interest
  
| style="width:175px;height:87px;" |  
+
| style="width:175px; height:87px" |  
 
Detailed project description/ information memorandum
 
Detailed project description/ information memorandum
  
Line 97: Line 109:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width:127px;height:64px;" |  
+
| style="width:127px; height:64px" |  
 
Transacting
 
Transacting
  
| style="width:157px;height:64px;" |  
+
| style="width:157px; height:64px" |  
 
Procuring and negotiating project documentation
 
Procuring and negotiating project documentation
  
| style="width:175px;height:64px;" |  
+
| style="width:175px; height:64px" |  
 
Bid documentation
 
Bid documentation
  
Line 109: Line 121:
  
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
Source: Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, Assessment of Project Preparation Facilities for Africa&nbsp;(2012) in SE4All, Scaling Up Finance for Sustainable Energy Investments (2015)
  
 
<br/>
 
<br/>
  
= Risks and possible approaches for mitigation/ control =
+
<br/>
 
 
The following table summarizes some of the risks identified based on existing projects and lessons learned from the literature review. Though this article is open for further contributions.
 
 
 
Some of the risks listed may be context specific, some are looked at from the ‘owner’ point of view, while others from the investor perspective. Moreover, the listed risks may correspond to more than one of the categories, though the information has been arranged this order within six categories to facilitate an overview.
 
  
&nbsp;
+
= Probable Risks and Suggestions for Mitigation & Control =
  
{| style="width:100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1"
+
There is a wide range of risks that could threaten the development, implementation and operation of energy projects. Some of the risks may ‘only being seen’ by investors, while developers and owner-operators are aware of other risks. Nevertheless it is important to address them holistically, ideally from the early phase on. The following table summarizes some of the risks identified in the literature review based on existing projects and lessons learned. It also includes suggestions on how risks can be minimized, mitigated or controlled during the life cycle of a project and by different actors.<br/>Many of the listed risks might be context specific therefore do not refer to any specific technological solution per se; the listing provides a synopsis of common risks across, mainly, renewable technology, without analysing the interdependencies and relationships among risks. Moreover, some risks may correspond to more than one category, though the information has been arranged in this order (within six categories) to facilitate a better overview.<br/>In addition, this article is open for further contributions.
 +
<p style="text-align: center">'''Table 2: Probable risks and suggestions for mitigation and control'''</p>
 +
{| style="width: 100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1"
 
|-
 
|-
 
| style="width: 121px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" rowspan="1" colspan="3" |  
 
| style="width: 121px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" rowspan="1" colspan="3" |  
Line 126: Line 138:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: center;" | '''Risk'''
+
| style="width: 134px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: center" | '''Risk'''
| style="width: 349px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: center;" | '''Risk description'''
+
| style="width: 349px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: center" | '''Risk description'''
| style="width: 121px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: center;" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
+
| style="width: 121px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: center" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 77px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 77px" |  
 
Load uncertainty<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref><ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">Manetsgruber, David; Wagemann, Bernanrd; Kondev, Bozhil; Dziergwa, Katrin. Risk Management for Mini-Grids: A new approach to guide mini-grid development. 2015. https://www.ruralelec.org/sites/default/files/risk_management_for_mini-grids_2015_final_web_0.pdf</ref>
 
Load uncertainty<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref><ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">Manetsgruber, David; Wagemann, Bernanrd; Kondev, Bozhil; Dziergwa, Katrin. Risk Management for Mini-Grids: A new approach to guide mini-grid development. 2015. https://www.ruralelec.org/sites/default/files/risk_management_for_mini-grids_2015_final_web_0.pdf</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 77px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 77px" |  
 
Poor estimation of load size, growth and schedule, could derive in under- or oversized systems. This can lead to increased investment/running cost, lower efficiency, and unreliable supply.<br/>
 
Poor estimation of load size, growth and schedule, could derive in under- or oversized systems. This can lead to increased investment/running cost, lower efficiency, and unreliable supply.<br/>
  
Overestimated efficiency
+
Overestimated efficiency.
  
 
| style="width:268px; height:77px" |  
 
| style="width:268px; height:77px" |  
Line 148: Line 160:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Power quality<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Power quality<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Integrating PV and batteries, in retrofits on existing systems, may affect the stability of the grid due to incompatibilities and an ineffective control system.
 
Integrating PV and batteries, in retrofits on existing systems, may affect the stability of the grid due to incompatibilities and an ineffective control system.
  
Line 160: Line 172:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Equipment failure/ Downtime<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Equipment failure/ Downtime<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Premature failure of hardware can not only cause service interruption but damage the entire system.
 
Premature failure of hardware can not only cause service interruption but damage the entire system.
  
Line 173: Line 185:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Hardware compatibility issues<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Hardware compatibility issues<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Proprietary protocols could provoke incompatibility between components.
 
Proprietary protocols could provoke incompatibility between components.
  
Line 184: Line 196:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Limitation for continuous supply/storage<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Limitation for continuous supply/storage<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Batteries have a limited life-span and are vulnerable to be misused, this impacts on the energy balance and supply affecting the operation of generators (specific for hybrid systems).
 
Batteries have a limited life-span and are vulnerable to be misused, this impacts on the energy balance and supply affecting the operation of generators (specific for hybrid systems).
  
Line 197: Line 209:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Familiarity with the technology<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Familiarity with the technology<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Difficulty to operate and maintain, complexity of maintenance, limited knowledge on maintenance issues.
 
Difficulty to operate and maintain, complexity of maintenance, limited knowledge on maintenance issues.
  
Line 208: Line 220:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Future connectivity<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Future connectivity<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Interim solutions, such as mini-grids, would ideally be connected to the main grid if it becomes available, otherwise it becomes obsolete.
 
Interim solutions, such as mini-grids, would ideally be connected to the main grid if it becomes available, otherwise it becomes obsolete.
  
 
| style="width:268px; height:9px" |  
 
| style="width:268px; height:9px" |  
*Design should consider the same standard as the central network
+
*Design should consider the same standard as the central network.
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Supply and installation issues<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref><ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Supply and installation issues<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref><ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Incorrect installation and operation of hardware, combined with the remoteness where the technology is installed.
 
Incorrect installation and operation of hardware, combined with the remoteness where the technology is installed.
  
Line 230: Line 242:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Building and testing<ref name="The Economist (2011)">The Economist, ‘Managing the risk in renewable energy’, 2011 https://www.altran.de/fileadmin/medias/DE.altran.de/documents/Fachartikel/Managing-The-Risk-In-Renewable-Energy.pdf</ref>
 
Building and testing<ref name="The Economist (2011)">The Economist, ‘Managing the risk in renewable energy’, 2011 https://www.altran.de/fileadmin/medias/DE.altran.de/documents/Fachartikel/Managing-The-Risk-In-Renewable-Energy.pdf</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Property damage or third-party liability arising from mishaps during building or testing.
 
Property damage or third-party liability arising from mishaps during building or testing.
  
Line 244: Line 256:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk'''<br/>
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk'''<br/>
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk description'''
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk description'''
| style="width: 121px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
+
| style="width: 121px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Stakeholder management<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Stakeholder management<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Multiple parties involved whose activities, incentives, will not align between parties, causing negative outcomes.
 
Multiple parties involved whose activities, incentives, will not align between parties, causing negative outcomes.
  
Line 259: Line 271:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Operational<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Operational<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Administration errors or fraud.
 
Administration errors or fraud.
  
Line 268: Line 280:
 
*Simple standardisation like appropriate accounting and regular auditing.
 
*Simple standardisation like appropriate accounting and regular auditing.
 
*Establishment of internal rules and the standardisation of processes.
 
*Establishment of internal rules and the standardisation of processes.
*Regular training for contentious improvement, operational efficiency and service delivery.
+
*Regular training for continous improvement, operational efficiency and service delivery.
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Geographical isolation<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Geographical isolation<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Difficulties to acquire spare parts and/or repair due to long distances, transportation challenges and lack of skilled personnel in the area.
 
Difficulties to acquire spare parts and/or repair due to long distances, transportation challenges and lack of skilled personnel in the area.
  
Line 283: Line 295:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 121px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" colspan="3" |  
+
| style="width: 121px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" colspan="3" |  
 
== '''Geo-political risks''' ==
 
== '''Geo-political risks''' ==
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" | '''Risk'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Risk'''
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" | '''Risk description'''
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Risk description'''
| style="width: 268px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
+
| style="width: 268px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Change in public policy<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Change in public policy<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Increase in taxes levied on technology or import and export duties.
 
Increase in taxes levied on technology or import and export duties.
  
Line 303: Line 315:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Political instability
 
Political instability
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Unrest, social conflicts, war.
 
Unrest, social conflicts, war.
  
Line 313: Line 325:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Delays in approvals
 
Delays in approvals
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Arbitrary actions of public authorities can affect the development of any energy access project.
 
Arbitrary actions of public authorities can affect the development of any energy access project.
  
Line 323: Line 335:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Arrival of the national grid
 
Arrival of the national grid
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Investment’s payback and further cash flows could be in danger or threatened.
 
Investment’s payback and further cash flows could be in danger or threatened.
  
Line 333: Line 345:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" colspan="3" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" colspan="3" |  
 
== '''Financial and economic risks''' ==
 
== '''Financial and economic risks''' ==
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk'''
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk description'''
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk description'''
| style="width: 268px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
+
| style="width: 268px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Commitment, competence and credit worthiness of investors<ref name="Green (2013)">Green Rhino Energy, ‘Project Risk Matrix’, 2013, http://www.greenrhinoenergy.com/finance/renewable/risks.php</ref>
 
Commitment, competence and credit worthiness of investors<ref name="Green (2013)">Green Rhino Energy, ‘Project Risk Matrix’, 2013, http://www.greenrhinoenergy.com/finance/renewable/risks.php</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Large level of investment/ long tenor of return, may require additional equity later after project has begun.
 
Large level of investment/ long tenor of return, may require additional equity later after project has begun.
  
Line 352: Line 364:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px" |  
 
Inadequate business models<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Inadequate business models<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 9px" |  
 
Effective business models are key for deployment and may need to be continuously revised to scale up.
 
Effective business models are key for deployment and may need to be continuously revised to scale up.
  
Line 361: Line 373:
 
*Information about similar experiences.
 
*Information about similar experiences.
 
*Seek for support to ensure capacity building and/or access to finance.
 
*Seek for support to ensure capacity building and/or access to finance.
*Chose models that are practical and appropriate for the local context.
+
*Choose models that are practical and appropriate for the local context.
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 68px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 68px" |  
 
Diesel and cost supply<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Diesel and cost supply<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 68px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 68px" |  
 
Although the use is reduced (hybrid systems), prices and availability impact the operation of the system.
 
Although the use is reduced (hybrid systems), prices and availability impact the operation of the system.
  
Line 375: Line 387:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 88px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 88px" |  
 
Exchange rates/ Inflation<ref name="Green (2013)">_</ref>
 
Exchange rates/ Inflation<ref name="Green (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 88px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 88px" |  
 
Foreign exchange rate changes due to devaluation, convertibility or transfer restrictions.
 
Foreign exchange rate changes due to devaluation, convertibility or transfer restrictions.
  
Line 388: Line 400:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 35px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 35px" |  
 
Credit<ref name="Green (2013)">_</ref>
 
Credit<ref name="Green (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 35px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 35px" |  
 
Risk of default of counterparties or default on specific payments.
 
Risk of default of counterparties or default on specific payments.
  
Line 398: Line 410:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 17px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 17px" |  
 
Liquidity and refinancing<ref name="IRENA">IRENA, ‘Unlocking renewable energy investment: the role of risk mitigation and structured finance’, 2016, https://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Risk_Mitigation_and_Structured_Finance_2016.pdf</ref>
 
Liquidity and refinancing<ref name="IRENA">IRENA, ‘Unlocking renewable energy investment: the role of risk mitigation and structured finance’, 2016, https://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Risk_Mitigation_and_Structured_Finance_2016.pdf</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 17px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 17px" |  
Liquidity risks arising from revenue shortfalls or mismatches between the timing of cash receipts and payments. At the same time b<span style="font-size: 13.6px;">orrowers might be unable to refinance an outstanding loan due to inadequate loan terms or the maturity of the loan is mismatched with the lifetime of the project.</span>
+
Liquidity risks arising from revenue shortfalls or mismatches between the timing of cash receipts and payments. At the same time borrowers might be unable to refinance an outstanding loan due to inadequate loan terms or the maturity of the loan is mismatched with the lifetime of the project.
  
 
| style="width:268px; height:17px" |  
 
| style="width:268px; height:17px" |  
 
*Internal liquidity facilities to advance or support payments to bridge short-term cash flow problems (i.e.: debt service reserve accounts, excess spread accounts, over-collateralisation, contingent equity).
 
*Internal liquidity facilities to advance or support payments to bridge short-term cash flow problems (i.e.: debt service reserve accounts, excess spread accounts, over-collateralisation, contingent equity).
*External liquidity facilities provide a short-term letter of credit or credit line without additional cash requirements (i.e. Regional Liquidity Support Facility (RLSF) established in partnership between KfW, Africa Trade INsurance Agency and IRENA in sub-Saharan Africa).
+
*External liquidity facilities provide a short-term letter of credit or credit line without additional cash requirements (i.e. Regional Liquidity Support Facility (RLSF) established in partnership between KfW, Africa Trade Insurance Agency and IRENA in sub-Saharan Africa).
 
*Liquidity guarantee to lenghten loans.<br/>
 
*Liquidity guarantee to lenghten loans.<br/>
*Put options to refinance ensuring long-term lending for borrowers.&nbsp;
+
*Put options to refinance ensuring long-term lending for borrowers.
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" colspan="3" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" colspan="3" |  
 
== '''Social risks''' ==
 
== '''Social risks''' ==
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk'''
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk description'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk description'''
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center;" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); text-align: center" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 287px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 287px" |  
 
Public resistance<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Public resistance<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 287px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 287px" |  
Resistance of interest groups because statics, water supply, smell (biogas), etc.
+
Resistance of interest groups because of visual aesthetics, water supply, smell (biogas), etc.
  
 
| style="width:268px; height:287px" |  
 
| style="width:268px; height:287px" |  
Line 430: Line 442:
 
*Implementation of capacity building measures and dedicated promotion of productive use of energy could support establishing local support.
 
*Implementation of capacity building measures and dedicated promotion of productive use of energy could support establishing local support.
 
*Project should be well embedded in the socio-cultural context where is going to be built/ installed.
 
*Project should be well embedded in the socio-cultural context where is going to be built/ installed.
*Ensure public opinion, transparency and involvement of local capacities
+
*Ensure public opinion, transparency and involvement of local capacities.
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 106px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 106px" |  
Community/social integration<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
+
Community/ social integration<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 106px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 106px" |  
 
Over-consumption from one or few users can cause a black-out. Theft or users connecting loads beyond their quota.
 
Over-consumption from one or few users can cause a black-out. Theft or users connecting loads beyond their quota.
  
Line 449: Line 461:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 287px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 287px" |  
 
Appropriate pricing and payments<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref><ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Appropriate pricing and payments<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref><ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 287px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 287px" |  
 
Rural customers usually have low incomes which is challenging when setting a price that is both sufficiently high to give returns and low enough to make it affordable.
 
Rural customers usually have low incomes which is challenging when setting a price that is both sufficiently high to give returns and low enough to make it affordable.
  
 
| style="width:268px; height:287px" |  
 
| style="width:268px; height:287px" |  
*Tariffs should be flexible and revisable
+
*Tariffs should be flexible and revisable.
 
*Educate about consequences of non-payment such as supply cut-off or penalties.
 
*Educate about consequences of non-payment such as supply cut-off or penalties.
 
*Uncomplicated bill setting and non-bureaucratic procedures for connection and consumption payment.
 
*Uncomplicated bill setting and non-bureaucratic procedures for connection and consumption payment.
Line 464: Line 476:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 77px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 77px" |  
 
Operators and end users’ safety<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
 
Operators and end users’ safety<ref name="Hazelton (2013)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 77px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 77px" |  
 
Risks of harm due to higher voltages and extensive wiring.
 
Risks of harm due to higher voltages and extensive wiring.
  
Line 475: Line 487:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 59px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 59px" |  
 
Theft and vandalism<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Theft and vandalism<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 59px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 59px" |  
Components or other valuable materials for which there is a secondary market, are in danger of being stolen
+
Components or other valuable materials, for which there is a secondary market, are in danger of being stolen.
  
 
| style="width:268px; height:59px" |  
 
| style="width:268px; height:59px" |  
Line 486: Line 498:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" colspan="3" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" colspan="3" |  
 
== '''Environmental risks''' ==
 
== '''Environmental risks''' ==
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" | '''Risk'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Risk'''
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" | '''Risk description'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Risk description'''
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204);" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 9px; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Risk mitigation/ control mechanism'''
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 52px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 52px" |  
 
Environmental
 
Environmental
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 52px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 52px" |  
 
Harm to the environment caused by operating the technology may affect planning & permitting.
 
Harm to the environment caused by operating the technology may affect planning & permitting.
  
Line 504: Line 516:
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 87px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 87px" |  
 
Weather-related /availability<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Weather-related /availability<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 87px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 87px" |  
 
Risk of fall in volume of electricity produced owing to lack of wind, sunshine, water flow/low rainfall, biomass availability.
 
Risk of fall in volume of electricity produced owing to lack of wind, sunshine, water flow/low rainfall, biomass availability.
  
Line 513: Line 525:
  
 
| style="width:268px; height:87px" |  
 
| style="width:268px; height:87px" |  
*If possible obtain long term data to select site.
+
*If possible, obtain long term data to select site.
*Establish close relationship to local biomass supply by creating dependency: supplying the supplier (fertilizer, bargain electricity price)
+
*Establish close relationship to local biomass supply by creating dependency: supplying the supplier (fertilizer, bargain electricity price).
  
 
|-
 
|-
| style="width: 134px; height: 57px;" |  
+
| style="width: 134px; height: 57px" |  
 
Force majeure<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 
Force majeure<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
  
| style="width: 349px; height: 57px;" |  
+
| style="width: 349px; height: 57px" |  
 
Environmental disaster like severe storms, typhoons, sandstorms, volcanic eruption, earth quakes, mud slides, etc.
 
Environmental disaster like severe storms, typhoons, sandstorms, volcanic eruption, earth quakes, mud slides, etc.
  
Line 528: Line 540:
 
|}
 
|}
 
<div></div>
 
<div></div>
 +
Source: Own elaboration based on literature review
 +
<div>
 +
Once projects are aware of the different risks they could face, it is important to consider that addressing all risks might be too expensive in terms of time and resources. For this reason it is important to prioritize risks, this can be done effectively using risk-management tools, which can later lead to decide appropriate measures.&nbsp;
 +
 +
<br/>
 +
</div>
 +
<br/>
 +
 +
= Risk Management =
 +
<div>
 +
The optimum for a project is to reach a level of risk consciousness that can lead to elaborate effective and efficient mitigation strategies. Therefore risk management needs to be understood as a dynamic process, which should strive to include the ideas and insights from the different the different stakeholders involved in a project (investors, operators, users, etc.), especially during the risk identification.<br/>
 +
<p style="text-align: center">'''Figure 1: Risk management main steps'''<br/></p><p style="text-align: center">[[File:Risk management steps.jpg|800px|RTENOTITLE]]</p><div style="clear: both"></div><br/>
 +
<br/>
 +
 +
Source: Own elaboration based on FEMA (2017)<ref name="FEMA">FEMA, Risk Mapping, Assessment and Planning (Risk Map), Department of Homeland Security US, 2017,https://www.fema.gov/risk-mapping-assessment-and-planning-risk-map </ref>&nbsp;and Manetsgruber et al. (2015)<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 +
 +
The first step of risk management will result in an overview of all risks associated to different aspects in a project (i.e. the categories considered in [[Risks in Energy Access Projects#Probable risks and suggestions for mitigation .26 control|Table 2]]). Every risk should be assessed according to the magnitude of its impact potential and the probability of it to happen. A common and widely used risk management tool to visualise the impact of individual risks is a risk map as shown in Figure 2.&nbsp;
 +
</div><p style="text-align: center">'''Figure 2: Risk map with different colors indicating levels of importance'''</p><p style="text-align: center">[[File:Risk assessment.jpg|800px|RTENOTITLE]]</p><div style="clear: both"></div><br/>
 +
Source:&nbsp;Manetsgruber et al. (2015)<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>
 +
 +
<br/>
 +
<div>
 +
The colour differentiation in a risk map indicates the level of importance of each risk. As mentioned, risk management is an iterative process and a risk map can be used to better&nbsp;understand the current risk situation at a particular moment in time, it also represents the outcome or risk mitigation interventions. Being aware of the risks does not necessarily mean to address each of them. Prioritization can be done effectively using the map (chart) in which risks are assessed in two dimensions:
 +
</div>
 +
*'''Probability''' - to probability of a risk to occur.
 +
*'''Impact'''&nbsp;'''(Loss potential)''' - the size of the impact varies in terms of different factors (i.e. costs).
 +
 +
Considering both dimensions, there are four possible levels where risks can be placed<ref name="MindTools">Mind Tools, 'Risk Impact/ Probability Chart', 2017. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_78.htm</ref>:
 +
 +
#'''Low impact/ Low probability''' - risks at the bottom left corner are low level, these can be often ignored.
 +
#'''Low impact/ High probability''' - risks in the bottom right corner are of moderate importance, the project should reduce the likelihood of these to occur.
 +
#'''High impact/ low probability''' - risks in the top left corner are of high importance, but they are unlikely to happen. Contingency plans should be in place.
 +
#'''High impact/ high probability''' - risks located at the top right corner are critical and should be a top priority for the project.
 +
<div>
 +
Based on these four leveles and according to the [https://www.ruralelec.org/sites/default/files/risk_management_for_mini-grids_2015_final_web_0.pdf Risk Management Approach Guide]&nbsp;(Manetsgruber et al., 2015)<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref> there are four general risk management levels that can be developed after analysing the data contained in a risk map (Figure 3). This serves to identify primary strategies to address each risk, and could be adjusted or replaced if necessary over the life cycle of a project. The different strategies can derive from the risk map itself in relation to the impact magnitude and probability, according to levels of:
 +
 +
*'''Risk tolerance:''' these type of risks occur rarely and have a low negative impact, the project should be aware of them but there is no need of further action, though these need to be observed and re-assessed if necessary.
 +
*'''Risk transfer:''' these risks have a high impact potential and low probability of occurrence, therefore these should be transferred to or covered by a willing third party as they can cause significant harm to the project.
 +
*'''Risk reduction:''' risks have a high probability of occurrence and low impact, resource buffers or emergency measures con be applied to reduce the possibility of it to occur. Likewise, measures like for example specific operation practices, training and technology upgrades, among others, can deflect or prevent the threats of these risks.
 +
*'''Risk avoidance:''' these risks require actions to mitigate them to decrease the probability of occurrence.
 +
</div><p style="text-align: center">'''Figure 3: Risk map with four generic strategic risk zones'''<br/></p><p style="text-align: center">[[File:Strategy derivation based on the risk map.jpg|800px|RTENOTITLE]]<br/></p>
 +
Source: Manetsgruber et al. (2015)<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref><br/>
 +
 +
Rural energy access displays a high degree of complexity and it is required to think about developing a specific risk management approach, tailor-made for the type and scale of the projects<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">_</ref>.
 +
 +
<br/>
 +
 +
<br/>
 +
 
<br/>
 
<br/>
  
= Tools to identify risks =
+
= Best Practices<br/> =
 +
 
 +
'''Risk management for mini grids''' [https://www.ruralelec.org/sites/default/files/risk_management_for_mini-grids_2015_final_web_0.pdf Risk Management Approach Guide])'''- Case-based analysis on the economics of mini-grids based on different projects with different: power generation techniques, Business models approaches and integration to given circumstances (page 41- 48) and recommendations (page 50).'''<br/>
  
A common and widely used method to visualise the impact of individual risks is a a risk map. The four main steps to plot data on a risk map are:
+
== Uganda: Solar Kirchner uses an anchor business customer<br/> ==
  
[[File:Risk map.jpg|866px|RTENOTITLE]]<br/>
+
*The '''payment risk''', including the lack of willingness or ability to pay, is reduced by ensuring stable loads and cash flows by an anchor business, a telecommunication tower. Nearby villages profit from electrification.<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">Manetsgruber, David; Wagemann, Bernanrd; Kondev, Bozhil; Dziergwa, Katrin. Risk Management for Mini-Grids: A new approach to guide mini-grid development. 2015. https://www.ruralelec.org/sites/default/files/risk_management_for_mini-grids_2015_final_web_0.pdf</ref>
  
A risk map is used to better understand the current risk situation at a particular moment in time, it also represents the outcome or risk mitigation interventions<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)" />. Being aware of the risks does not necessarily means to address each of the risks (as this can be expensive in terms of time and resources), though it is important to prioritize risks. This can be done effectively using a risk impact/ probability chart in which the risks are assessed in two dimensions:
+
== Laos: Sunlabob applies risk management by asset splitting ==
  
#Probability - to probability of a risk to occur
+
*Negotiation with the national utility to ensure steady incomes for the mini-grid operators after national grid arrives will reduced the '''payment risk.''' As does supporting local micro-entrepreneurship.
#Impact - the size of the impact varies in terms of differnt factors (i.e. costs)
+
*Diversifying the power-generating sources (hydro, PV, and a diesel) reduces the '''technology and performance risk''', as well as the '''resource availability risk'''.
 +
*Splitting the assets into three categories reduces the '''total loss of investment risk''': public owned infrastructural assets (grid), private owned movable assets, and productive use assets are owned by local entrepreneurs.<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)">Manetsgruber, David; Wagemann, Bernanrd; Kondev, Bozhil; Dziergwa, Katrin. Risk Management for Mini-Grids: A new approach to guide mini-grid development. 2015. https://www.ruralelec.org/sites/default/files/risk_management_for_mini-grids_2015_final_web_0.pdf</ref>
  
According to the approach guide developed by Manetsgruber ''et al.'' (2015)<ref name="Manetsgruber (2015)" />, there are four general risk management strategies that can be developed after analyzing the risk map's data. There are four escalation levels according&nbsp;
+
== Senegal: INENSUS adopts strategies to reduce unpredictable demand ==
  
= Best practices =
+
*<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255)">To reduce the&nbsp;</span>'''risk of unpredictable demand'''<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255)">&nbsp;prepaid energy users purchase&nbsp;</span>'energy blocks' that are consumed during a certain period of time otherwise they expire.<br/>
 +
*<span style="font-size: 13.6px">As a form to '''regulate consumption,''' the system allows users to trade unused 'energy blocks' whitin the village. The u</span><span style="font-size: 13.6px">se of intelligent smart meters enables users to monitor their own consumption.</span>
 +
*Additional income for users is possible as they trade unused 'energy blocks' according a price they set themselves.
 +
*Customers are ranked in categories (high and low priority) to ensure that in times of energy shortage high priority customers will remain connected to the grid, reducing the '''risk of unpredictable demand'''.
  
= Policy recommendations =
+
== Cape Verde: Trama Tecno Ambiental (TTA) applied a tariff design and created micro-business for energy surplus ==
 +
 
 +
*With the use of smart meters users determine and adjust their future demand reducing '''payment risk'''.
 +
*To reduce the '''unpredictable demand risk''', a micro-business (commercialisation of ice) has been established to make use of solar energy surplus, generating also additional income for the facility.
 +
 
 +
== Senegal: Kaito ensures long term revenue ==
 +
 
 +
*Before starting operations, micro-business creation was fostered including the electrfication of existing businesses concentrated in a market area to ensure stable payments after implementation to reduce the '''risk of non-payment'''.
 +
*To reduce the '''risk of social acceptance'''&nbsp;all relevant stakeholders are involved at the beginning of the project.
 +
 
 +
== Large scale projects ==
 +
 
 +
*<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255)">'''[https://climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/risk-mitigation-instruments-for-renewable-energy-in-developing-countries-a-case-study-on-hydropower-in-africa/ Risk mitigation instruments for renewable energy in developing countries: a case study on hydropower in Africa]''' – from the project finance perspective of a large scale project finance applying risk mitigation instruments provided by the World Bank Group. </span><br/>
  
 
<br/>
 
<br/>
  
= References =
+
= Further Reading<br/> =
 +
 
 +
*<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255)">'''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260733852_Addressing_some_issues_relating_to_hybrid_mini_grid_failures_in_Fiji Addressing some issues relating to hybrid mini grid failures in Fiji] - '''Literature review and consultations about technical and non-technical aspects hindering the success&nbsp;and sustainability of hybrid mini-grids in Fiji. This scientific paper also includes guidelines to overcome risks. &nbsp;</span><br/>
 +
*<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255)">'''[[Risk Coverage - Hydropower Development|Risk Coverage – Hydropower Development]]'''– List of common and interface risks in hydropower development.</span><br/>
 +
*<span style="font-size: 13.6px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255)">'''[http://iea-retd.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/RISK-IEA-RETD-2011-6.pdf Risk quantification and risk management in renewable energy projects] '''– Risk management methodology for renewable energy systems developed by the International Energy Agency – Renewable Technology Development Programme (IEA-RETD).&nbsp;</span><br/>
 +
*'''[[Barriers and Risks to Renewable Energy Financing|Financial barriers and risks threatening renewable energy investment]]'''&nbsp;-&nbsp;This article describes the risks associated with:&nbsp;costs and uncertainty of resource assessment, regulation, financial costs in relation to conventional energy sources and carbon financing.&nbsp;<br/>
 +
 
 +
= References<br/> =
 +
 
 +
<references />
  
<references /><references /><references /><references /><references /><references /><references /><references /><references /><references />
+
[[Category:Renewable_Energy]]
 +
[[Category:Community_Engagement]]

Latest revision as of 15:27, 26 February 2019

Overview

Mini-grids and stand-alone systems play an important role when facilitating energy access in developing countries. However, despite the financing scheme and the type of technology applied, there are potential risks to be considered.

Painuly (2001)[1] in Hazelton et al. (2015)[2] states that unawareness and misinterpretation of risks (and benefits) are a major barrier for technology adoption. 

Therefore a de-risking approach along the entire life cycle of a project is necessary in order to ensure its success and sustainability.

This article includes:

  • An example of activities that can be carried out during a projects’ preparation as guidance on how to be aware of risks.
  • An extensive list of risks organized in six sub-categories based on literature review and field experience in monitoring. For most of the risks there are suggestions on how to minimize, mitigate or controll them during the life cycle of a project.
  • The four main steps of risk management are presented in a graph that encapsulates the essentials of this iterative process. In addition, there is an explanation on how to prioritize risks according to the dimensions of their probability to occur and their impact potential.
  • At the end the reader can consider revising some experiences applying de-risking approaches for rural electrification projects (mini-grids and hydro), as well as further reading about risks management for renewable energy systems.


De-risking Approach During Project Preparation

Not well-prepared projects reduce their chances of receiving funding and miss important opportunities. For example, governments usually do not invest in project preparation except if there is a chance of attracting funding. A report about scaling-up finance for sustainable energy investments of SE4All identifies as key factors that challenge project preparation:

  1. Lack of adequate project preparation funding for all phases of preparation.
  2. Lack of capacity to prepare good quality projects.
  3. Absence of institutional vehicle for project preparation.

In this sense, for a successful project preparation it is important to list all possible risks associated to the project. During any project preparation it is required a sound project structure to reduce uncertainties and allocate risks. However, often the focus is on some phases of the project cycle, rather than on all, often neglecting the earlier stages. This could later lead to an inadequate risk oversight and consequently to an unsuccessful and unsustainable project. Applying a de-risking approach consists of a series of activities to reduce the occurrence of risks or their influence at any point in a project's life. This is also known as 'Risk-management', and its fundamentals are the process of identifying risks, analysing them, determining the degree of tolerance and consequently accepting or designating mitigation or control actions.

An appropriate project preparation should include a range of activities and outputs across the entire project cycle, an example of a governmental project preparation is presented in the SE4All report:

Table 1: Project preparation [3]

 Project cycle phases

     Processes

  Detailed activities

   Examples of required outputs

Early stage

Concept development

Project identification and concept development

Sector planning, project identification and screening

Sector policy papers

Project concept notes

Prefeasibility reports

Establishing the enabling environment

Identifying legal/ regulatory/ institutional and other impediments and rectifying them

Laws

Regulations

Allocation of responsibilities

Mid to late stage

Feasibility, structuring and transacting

Due diligence

Detailed financial, legal, engineering, environmental and social appraisals

Reports that validate and develop concept further

Project structuring

Detailed financial and legal structuring

Financial models

Legal documentation

Marketing

Promotion of the project and assessment of private sector interest

Detailed project description/ information memorandum

Road shows/ conferences

Transacting

Procuring and negotiating project documentation

Bid documentation

Signed, negotiated project documentation

Source: Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, Assessment of Project Preparation Facilities for Africa (2012) in SE4All, Scaling Up Finance for Sustainable Energy Investments (2015)



Probable Risks and Suggestions for Mitigation & Control

There is a wide range of risks that could threaten the development, implementation and operation of energy projects. Some of the risks may ‘only being seen’ by investors, while developers and owner-operators are aware of other risks. Nevertheless it is important to address them holistically, ideally from the early phase on. The following table summarizes some of the risks identified in the literature review based on existing projects and lessons learned. It also includes suggestions on how risks can be minimized, mitigated or controlled during the life cycle of a project and by different actors.
Many of the listed risks might be context specific therefore do not refer to any specific technological solution per se; the listing provides a synopsis of common risks across, mainly, renewable technology, without analysing the interdependencies and relationships among risks. Moreover, some risks may correspond to more than one category, though the information has been arranged in this order (within six categories) to facilitate a better overview.
In addition, this article is open for further contributions.

Table 2: Probable risks and suggestions for mitigation and control

Technical risks

Risk Risk description Risk mitigation/ control mechanism

Load uncertainty[2][4]

Poor estimation of load size, growth and schedule, could derive in under- or oversized systems. This can lead to increased investment/running cost, lower efficiency, and unreliable supply.

Overestimated efficiency.

  • Recommended to perform in-field power ratings.
  • Use of design tools to estimate load.
  • Consider modular designs.
  • If possible, the design should include future expansion.
  • Limit the initial generation capacity and increase it gradually as demand grows.
  • Manage consumption according to the available capacity: load control or daily energy allowance.
  • Include energy efficiency measures.

Power quality[2]

Integrating PV and batteries, in retrofits on existing systems, may affect the stability of the grid due to incompatibilities and an ineffective control system.

  • Appropriate control strategy.
  • Appropriate design simulation prior implementation.
  • Consider distributed generation as it is less variable than centralized systems.

Equipment failure/ Downtime[2]

Premature failure of hardware can not only cause service interruption but damage the entire system.

In addition, despite existing warranties, these can be hard to fulfil due to the remoteness where they system is located.

  • Appropriate routine maintenance.
  • Equipment should meet quality standards and be appropriate for the environmental conditions.

Hardware compatibility issues[2]

Proprietary protocols could provoke incompatibility between components.

  • Use open based protocols.
  • Choose single provider.

Limitation for continuous supply/storage[2]

Batteries have a limited life-span and are vulnerable to be misused, this impacts on the energy balance and supply affecting the operation of generators (specific for hybrid systems).

  • Proper training.
  • Manage operators and user’s expectations.
  • Consider product selection.
  • Planning/budgeting for spare parts, replacement.

Familiarity with the technology[2]

Difficulty to operate and maintain, complexity of maintenance, limited knowledge on maintenance issues.

  • Continuous capacity building on technical aspects starting before implementation.
  • Trained technicians should receive payment for their job as incentive.

Future connectivity[2]

Interim solutions, such as mini-grids, would ideally be connected to the main grid if it becomes available, otherwise it becomes obsolete.

  • Design should consider the same standard as the central network.

Supply and installation issues[2][4]

Incorrect installation and operation of hardware, combined with the remoteness where the technology is installed.

  • Incorporate capacity development in the plan: proper training for local installers and operators.
  • Hire reliable contractors for installation and certain elements of the operation.
  • Rely on construction consultants to oversee project implementation and ensure that contractors comply with the expectations of the developers.

Building and testing[5]

Property damage or third-party liability arising from mishaps during building or testing.

 

Institutional/ Organizational risks 

Risk
Risk description Risk mitigation/ control mechanism

Stakeholder management[2]

Multiple parties involved whose activities, incentives, will not align between parties, causing negative outcomes.

  • Parties need to aware of their obligations and maintain a collaborative approach.
  • Agreements to protect every actor equally.

Operational[4]

Administration errors or fraud.

  • Simple standardisation like appropriate accounting and regular auditing.
  • Establishment of internal rules and the standardisation of processes.
  • Regular training for continous improvement, operational efficiency and service delivery.

Geographical isolation[2]

Difficulties to acquire spare parts and/or repair due to long distances, transportation challenges and lack of skilled personnel in the area.

  • Ensure local capacity building.
  • Routine and preventive maintenance should be properly scheduled.
  • Timely identification of the closest spare parts provider/s.

Geo-political risks

Risk Risk description Risk mitigation/ control mechanism

Change in public policy[4]

Increase in taxes levied on technology or import and export duties.

Subsidies affecting operation and/or profitability.

  • Political risks with high probability of occurrence may be hard to mitigate.

Political instability

Unrest, social conflicts, war.

 

Delays in approvals

Arbitrary actions of public authorities can affect the development of any energy access project.

  • Continuous involvement and consultation of local authorities during the development and implementation.

Arrival of the national grid

Investment’s payback and further cash flows could be in danger or threatened.

  • Continuous involvement and consultation of local authorities during the development and implementation.

Financial and economic risks

Risk Risk description Risk mitigation/ control mechanism

Commitment, competence and credit worthiness of investors[6]

Large level of investment/ long tenor of return, may require additional equity later after project has begun.

  • Credit assessment.
  • Verify the competence and/or knowledge regarding energy projects.

Inadequate business models[2]

Effective business models are key for deployment and may need to be continuously revised to scale up.

  • Information about similar experiences.
  • Seek for support to ensure capacity building and/or access to finance.
  • Choose models that are practical and appropriate for the local context.

Diesel and cost supply[2]

Although the use is reduced (hybrid systems), prices and availability impact the operation of the system.

  • Maximise other sources of generation.
  • Develop time-of-use-tariffs to discourage use when diesel would be required.

Exchange rates/ Inflation[6]

Foreign exchange rate changes due to devaluation, convertibility or transfer restrictions.

  • Borrow in local currency.
  • Cross-currency swaps (if possible).
  • Use hedging instruments (though this may be complex and expensive).
  • Involve local investors.

Credit[6]

Risk of default of counterparties or default on specific payments.

  • Good credit risk management.

Liquidity and refinancing[7]

Liquidity risks arising from revenue shortfalls or mismatches between the timing of cash receipts and payments. At the same time borrowers might be unable to refinance an outstanding loan due to inadequate loan terms or the maturity of the loan is mismatched with the lifetime of the project.

  • Internal liquidity facilities to advance or support payments to bridge short-term cash flow problems (i.e.: debt service reserve accounts, excess spread accounts, over-collateralisation, contingent equity).
  • External liquidity facilities provide a short-term letter of credit or credit line without additional cash requirements (i.e. Regional Liquidity Support Facility (RLSF) established in partnership between KfW, Africa Trade Insurance Agency and IRENA in sub-Saharan Africa).
  • Liquidity guarantee to lenghten loans.
  • Put options to refinance ensuring long-term lending for borrowers.

Social risks

Risk Risk description Risk mitigation/ control mechanism

Public resistance[4]

Resistance of interest groups because of visual aesthetics, water supply, smell (biogas), etc.

  • Include the whole community throughout the development and operation of the project.
  • Partnerships with local organizations can help to facilitate the relationship between developers and customers.
  • Implementation of capacity building measures and dedicated promotion of productive use of energy could support establishing local support.
  • Project should be well embedded in the socio-cultural context where is going to be built/ installed.
  • Ensure public opinion, transparency and involvement of local capacities.

Community/ social integration[2]

Over-consumption from one or few users can cause a black-out. Theft or users connecting loads beyond their quota.

  • Community engagement from the outset and follow up.
  • Avoid top-down approach.
  • Respect local organisational structures.
  • Manage and follow up user expectations: users should be aware of the potential limitations.
  • Enforce load control measures.
  • Tariff system to prevent overconsumption.
  • Proper education to discourage illegal connections: educate about the consequences or impact on the operation and performance of the system.

Appropriate pricing and payments[2][4]

Rural customers usually have low incomes which is challenging when setting a price that is both sufficiently high to give returns and low enough to make it affordable.

  • Tariffs should be flexible and revisable.
  • Educate about consequences of non-payment such as supply cut-off or penalties.
  • Uncomplicated bill setting and non-bureaucratic procedures for connection and consumption payment.
  • Smart metering systems equipped with tamper protection or in combination with incentives for electricity use.
  • Take into account possible inability to pay: income fluctuations and payment culture.
  • Verify the satisfaction of users (to avoid unwillingness to pay).

Operators and end users’ safety[2]

Risks of harm due to higher voltages and extensive wiring.

  • Provide appropriate training to operators and users.
  • Design and installation according to international standards.

Theft and vandalism[4]

Components or other valuable materials, for which there is a secondary market, are in danger of being stolen.

  • Secure perimeter.
  • Develop sense of ownership within the local community.

Environmental risks

Risk Risk description Risk mitigation/ control mechanism

Environmental

Harm to the environment caused by operating the technology may affect planning & permitting.

  • Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

Weather-related /availability[4]

Risk of fall in volume of electricity produced owing to lack of wind, sunshine, water flow/low rainfall, biomass availability.

 

  • If possible, obtain long term data to select site.
  • Establish close relationship to local biomass supply by creating dependency: supplying the supplier (fertilizer, bargain electricity price).

Force majeure[4]

Environmental disaster like severe storms, typhoons, sandstorms, volcanic eruption, earth quakes, mud slides, etc.

 

Source: Own elaboration based on literature review

Once projects are aware of the different risks they could face, it is important to consider that addressing all risks might be too expensive in terms of time and resources. For this reason it is important to prioritize risks, this can be done effectively using risk-management tools, which can later lead to decide appropriate measures. 



Risk Management

The optimum for a project is to reach a level of risk consciousness that can lead to elaborate effective and efficient mitigation strategies. Therefore risk management needs to be understood as a dynamic process, which should strive to include the ideas and insights from the different the different stakeholders involved in a project (investors, operators, users, etc.), especially during the risk identification.

Figure 1: Risk management main steps

RTENOTITLE



Source: Own elaboration based on FEMA (2017)[8] and Manetsgruber et al. (2015)[4]

The first step of risk management will result in an overview of all risks associated to different aspects in a project (i.e. the categories considered in Table 2). Every risk should be assessed according to the magnitude of its impact potential and the probability of it to happen. A common and widely used risk management tool to visualise the impact of individual risks is a risk map as shown in Figure 2. 

Figure 2: Risk map with different colors indicating levels of importance

RTENOTITLE


Source: Manetsgruber et al. (2015)[4]


The colour differentiation in a risk map indicates the level of importance of each risk. As mentioned, risk management is an iterative process and a risk map can be used to better understand the current risk situation at a particular moment in time, it also represents the outcome or risk mitigation interventions. Being aware of the risks does not necessarily mean to address each of them. Prioritization can be done effectively using the map (chart) in which risks are assessed in two dimensions:

  • Probability - to probability of a risk to occur.
  • Impact (Loss potential) - the size of the impact varies in terms of different factors (i.e. costs).

Considering both dimensions, there are four possible levels where risks can be placed[9]:

  1. Low impact/ Low probability - risks at the bottom left corner are low level, these can be often ignored.
  2. Low impact/ High probability - risks in the bottom right corner are of moderate importance, the project should reduce the likelihood of these to occur.
  3. High impact/ low probability - risks in the top left corner are of high importance, but they are unlikely to happen. Contingency plans should be in place.
  4. High impact/ high probability - risks located at the top right corner are critical and should be a top priority for the project.

Based on these four leveles and according to the Risk Management Approach Guide (Manetsgruber et al., 2015)[4] there are four general risk management levels that can be developed after analysing the data contained in a risk map (Figure 3). This serves to identify primary strategies to address each risk, and could be adjusted or replaced if necessary over the life cycle of a project. The different strategies can derive from the risk map itself in relation to the impact magnitude and probability, according to levels of:

  • Risk tolerance: these type of risks occur rarely and have a low negative impact, the project should be aware of them but there is no need of further action, though these need to be observed and re-assessed if necessary.
  • Risk transfer: these risks have a high impact potential and low probability of occurrence, therefore these should be transferred to or covered by a willing third party as they can cause significant harm to the project.
  • Risk reduction: risks have a high probability of occurrence and low impact, resource buffers or emergency measures con be applied to reduce the possibility of it to occur. Likewise, measures like for example specific operation practices, training and technology upgrades, among others, can deflect or prevent the threats of these risks.
  • Risk avoidance: these risks require actions to mitigate them to decrease the probability of occurrence.

Figure 3: Risk map with four generic strategic risk zones

RTENOTITLE

Source: Manetsgruber et al. (2015)[4]

Rural energy access displays a high degree of complexity and it is required to think about developing a specific risk management approach, tailor-made for the type and scale of the projects[4].




Best Practices

Risk management for mini grids Risk Management Approach Guide)- Case-based analysis on the economics of mini-grids based on different projects with different: power generation techniques, Business models approaches and integration to given circumstances (page 41- 48) and recommendations (page 50).

Uganda: Solar Kirchner uses an anchor business customer

  • The payment risk, including the lack of willingness or ability to pay, is reduced by ensuring stable loads and cash flows by an anchor business, a telecommunication tower. Nearby villages profit from electrification.[4]

Laos: Sunlabob applies risk management by asset splitting

  • Negotiation with the national utility to ensure steady incomes for the mini-grid operators after national grid arrives will reduced the payment risk. As does supporting local micro-entrepreneurship.
  • Diversifying the power-generating sources (hydro, PV, and a diesel) reduces the technology and performance risk, as well as the resource availability risk.
  • Splitting the assets into three categories reduces the total loss of investment risk: public owned infrastructural assets (grid), private owned movable assets, and productive use assets are owned by local entrepreneurs.[4]

Senegal: INENSUS adopts strategies to reduce unpredictable demand

  • To reduce the risk of unpredictable demand prepaid energy users purchase 'energy blocks' that are consumed during a certain period of time otherwise they expire.
  • As a form to regulate consumption, the system allows users to trade unused 'energy blocks' whitin the village. The use of intelligent smart meters enables users to monitor their own consumption.
  • Additional income for users is possible as they trade unused 'energy blocks' according a price they set themselves.
  • Customers are ranked in categories (high and low priority) to ensure that in times of energy shortage high priority customers will remain connected to the grid, reducing the risk of unpredictable demand.

Cape Verde: Trama Tecno Ambiental (TTA) applied a tariff design and created micro-business for energy surplus

  • With the use of smart meters users determine and adjust their future demand reducing payment risk.
  • To reduce the unpredictable demand risk, a micro-business (commercialisation of ice) has been established to make use of solar energy surplus, generating also additional income for the facility.

Senegal: Kaito ensures long term revenue

  • Before starting operations, micro-business creation was fostered including the electrfication of existing businesses concentrated in a market area to ensure stable payments after implementation to reduce the risk of non-payment.
  • To reduce the risk of social acceptance all relevant stakeholders are involved at the beginning of the project.

Large scale projects


Further Reading

References

  1. Painuly, Jyoti Prasad, ‘Barriers to renewable energy penetration; a framework for analysis’, Renewable Energy 24, 2001. http://www1.upme.gov.co/SGIC/sites/default/files/Barriers%20to%20renewable%20energy%20penetration.pdf
  2. 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 Hazelton, James; Bruce, Anna; MacGill Iain, ‘A review of the potential benefits and risks of photovoltaic hybrid mini-grid systems’, Renewable Energy 67, 2013. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259298363_A_review_of_the_potential_benefits_and_risks_of_photovoltaic_hybrid_mini-grid_systems Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hazelton (2013)" defined multiple times with different content
  3. SE4All Advisory Board's Finance Committee, 'Scaling Up FInance for Sustainable Energy Investments, 2015. http://www.se4all.org/sites/default/files/SE4All-Advisory-Board-Finance-Committee-Report.pdf
  4. 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 Manetsgruber, David; Wagemann, Bernanrd; Kondev, Bozhil; Dziergwa, Katrin. Risk Management for Mini-Grids: A new approach to guide mini-grid development. 2015. https://www.ruralelec.org/sites/default/files/risk_management_for_mini-grids_2015_final_web_0.pdf Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Manetsgruber (2015)" defined multiple times with different content
  5. The Economist, ‘Managing the risk in renewable energy’, 2011 https://www.altran.de/fileadmin/medias/DE.altran.de/documents/Fachartikel/Managing-The-Risk-In-Renewable-Energy.pdf
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 Green Rhino Energy, ‘Project Risk Matrix’, 2013, http://www.greenrhinoenergy.com/finance/renewable/risks.php Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Green (2013)" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Green (2013)" defined multiple times with different content
  7. IRENA, ‘Unlocking renewable energy investment: the role of risk mitigation and structured finance’, 2016, https://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Risk_Mitigation_and_Structured_Finance_2016.pdf
  8. FEMA, Risk Mapping, Assessment and Planning (Risk Map), Department of Homeland Security US, 2017,https://www.fema.gov/risk-mapping-assessment-and-planning-risk-map
  9. Mind Tools, 'Risk Impact/ Probability Chart', 2017. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_78.htm