Difference between revisions of "Mitigation and Intervention Techniques Related to Micro-hydro Power (MHP) Projects"
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− | === '''<span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">BIOPHYSICAL MEASURES<ref>DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part | + | === '''<span style="color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">BIOPHYSICAL MEASURES<ref>DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 1: Community Based Participatory Watershed Development: A Guideline. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.</ref></span>''' === |
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==== '''Gully control''' ==== | ==== '''Gully control''' ==== | ||
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| bgcolor="#ffcc99" | '''Stone Checkdams''' | | bgcolor="#ffcc99" | '''Stone Checkdams''' | ||
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: A stone checkdam is a structure across the bottom of a gully or a small stream, which reduces the velocity of runoff and prevents the deepening and widening of | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: A stone checkdam is a structure across the bottom of a gully or a small stream, which reduces the velocity of runoff and prevents the deepening and widening of the gully. Sediments accumulated behind a checkdam could be planted with crops or trees/shrubs grass and thus provide additional income to the farmer.<br> |
− | <br>'''Brushwood Checkdams'''<br> | + | [[Image:Gully Control.jpg|315x234px|Gully Control.jpg]]<br> <br>'''Brushwood Checkdams'''<br> |
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: Brushwood checkdams are vegetative measures constructed with vegetative materials, branches, poles/posts and twigs. Plant species which can easily grow vegetatively through shoot cuttings are ideal for this purpose. The objective of BWs is to retain sediments and slowdown runoff, and enhance the revegetation of gully areas. They are constructed either in single or double row. Some of the vegetation can be used for fodder. BWs are also ideal to stabilize conservation structures bunds, SS bunds, check dams, bench terraces, road sides, etc. | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: Brushwood checkdams are vegetative measures constructed with vegetative materials, branches, poles/posts and twigs. Plant species which can easily grow vegetatively through shoot cuttings are ideal for this purpose. The objective of BWs is to retain sediments and slowdown runoff, and enhance the revegetation of gully areas. They are constructed either in single or double row. Some of the vegetation can be used for fodder. BWs are also ideal to stabilize conservation structures bunds, SS bunds, check dams, bench terraces, road sides, etc. [[Image:BrushwoodCheckdam.png|323x226px|BrushwoodCheckdam.png]] |
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'''Gully Resheping, Filling and Revegetation''' | '''Gully Resheping, Filling and Revegetation''' | ||
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: Reshaping & Filling is an operation meant to decrease the gully erosion angle of incidence, create planting areas and encourage revegetation & stabilization, usually in small gullies or in other medium sized gullies from which most runoff has been diverted into a stable waterway or drainage line. | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: Reshaping & Filling is an operation meant to decrease the gully erosion angle of incidence, create planting areas and encourage revegetation & stabilization, usually in small gullies or in other medium sized gullies from which most runoff has been diverted into a stable waterway or drainage line. When these gullies are shaped and smoothed, vegetation can be established over the levelled gullies. Some of these areas can be used for farming purposes. Revegetation of a gully is the plantation of the reshaped gully sides and bottom with multipurpose species so that it reduces runoff and control erosion and make the land productive. Gully revegetation implies reaching a dense vegetation cover over the entire gully surface, i.e. both sides and bottom by planting grasses, legumes and a variety of trees and shrubs.<br> |
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'''Sediment Storage and Overflow Earth Dams (SS Dams) for Productive Gulley Control'''<br> | '''Sediment Storage and Overflow Earth Dams (SS Dams) for Productive Gulley Control'''<br> | ||
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: SS dams are water harvesting and conservation systems that convert unproductive large and active gullies into productive areas (fertile cultivated or fodder producing areas, mixed plantations, and | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: SS dams are water harvesting and conservation systems that convert unproductive large and active gullies into productive areas (fertile cultivated or fodder producing areas, mixed plantations, and fruit tree orchards). SS dams are stone-faced earth dams constructed across medium/large size gullies to trap sediments, collect water and divert excess runoff. SS dams accommodate the runoff generated by the catchment located above the gully. The structures are often constructed in series along the gully. It is just like creating a land that does not exist. Contribute significantly to protect cultivated lands, arrest gully expansion and recharge water tables. Huge potential in Ethiopia - can provide tens of thousand Km of gullies to poor households (small land holders and landless). |
<br> '''Sediment Storage and Overflow Soil Bunds (SS Bunds)''' | <br> '''Sediment Storage and Overflow Soil Bunds (SS Bunds)''' | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: Strip cropping is a cropping practice where strips of two or more crops are alternately established on the contour or, it is a system of establishing more than one crop in alternate strips following a contour pattern for the purpose of erosion control, crop diversification, and decrease the risks associated to the use of single crops only. This cropping system is designed as a defence mechanism against soil erosion in areas where the cropping system is dominated by row/sparsely growing crops that exposes the ground to erosive forces. For instance, crops like sorghum and maize are susceptible to erosion and need to be grown alternately with soil conserving crops.<br> | *<u>Objectives</u>: Strip cropping is a cropping practice where strips of two or more crops are alternately established on the contour or, it is a system of establishing more than one crop in alternate strips following a contour pattern for the purpose of erosion control, crop diversification, and decrease the risks associated to the use of single crops only. This cropping system is designed as a defence mechanism against soil erosion in areas where the cropping system is dominated by row/sparsely growing crops that exposes the ground to erosive forces. For instance, crops like sorghum and maize are susceptible to erosion and need to be grown alternately with soil conserving crops.<br> | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: MTRs are rectangular and deep pits constructed along the contours - main purpose and effects are same as for trenches. Can support the growth of trees, shrubs, and cash<br>crops. Can be constructed on slopes 3-30% max. gradient and soils at least 50 cm depth. | *<u>Objectives</u>: MTRs are rectangular and deep pits constructed along the contours - main purpose and effects are same as for trenches. Can support the growth of trees, shrubs, and cash<br>crops. Can be constructed on slopes 3-30% max. gradient and soils at least 50 cm depth. | ||
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<br>'''Trenches''' | <br>'''Trenches''' | ||
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: Trenches are large and deep pits constructed along the contours with the main purpose of collecting & storing rainfall water to support the growth of trees, shrubs, cash crops and grass or various combination of those species in moisture stressed areas (350-900 mm rainfall). Trenches can have FLEXIBLE DESIGN, to accommodate the requirements of different species. Therefore they can suit what the farmer want to grow. Trenches collect and store considerable amount of runoff water, thus vegetation | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: Trenches are large and deep pits constructed along the contours with the main purpose of collecting & storing rainfall water to support the growth of trees, shrubs, cash crops and grass or various combination of those species in moisture stressed areas (350-900 mm rainfall). Trenches can have FLEXIBLE DESIGN, to accommodate the requirements of different species. Therefore they can suit what the farmer want to grow. Trenches collect and store considerable amount of runoff water, thus vegetation grows faster and vigorous. Trenches protect cultivated fields located downstream from flood and erosion. Part of the water captured by the trenches reaches the underground aquifer. Therefore, water tables are recharged and supply springs and wells with good quality water and for a long period of time. |
<br>'''Improved Pits (IP)''' | <br>'''Improved Pits (IP)''' | ||
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<br>'''Multistorey Gardening''' | <br>'''Multistorey Gardening''' | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: Multi-storey gardening is a way of planting a mixture of crops, shrubs and trees of different heights and different uses: food crops, cash crops, fruit trees, woody perennials, and forage plants. It makes the land more productive and improves soil fertility, reduces temperature, provides shade, and increase family income, particularly during a period of drought.Fields close or within homesteads can be converted into diversified productive units (decreasing risk factors, increased income, etc.). Such systems<br>have higher resistance to pests and insects. A broad network of such homesteads can extend into open fields and constitute large erosion-protected zones or a “web” of green fences and mutually supporting units. | *<u>Objectives</u>: Multi-storey gardening is a way of planting a mixture of crops, shrubs and trees of different heights and different uses: food crops, cash crops, fruit trees, woody perennials, and forage plants. It makes the land more productive and improves soil fertility, reduces temperature, provides shade, and increase family income, particularly during a period of drought.Fields close or within homesteads can be converted into diversified productive units (decreasing risk factors, increased income, etc.). Such systems<br>have higher resistance to pests and insects. A broad network of such homesteads can extend into open fields and constitute large erosion-protected zones or a “web” of green fences and mutually supporting units. | ||
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'''Compost Making''' | '''Compost Making''' | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: To promote compost making at household level for cost-effective soil fertility improvement<br>and to support local level compost entrepreneurship linked to natural resources management activities at watershed level. CM will improve soil fertility, increase water storage within the soil profile and reduce<br>surface runoff, thus reduce soil erosion. It is one of the best “hidden” water harvesting methods available (compost absorbs water 4-7 times its own weight). CM can be undertaken at very large scale and linked to area closure management and the upgrading of terraces into “cash crop production belts”. CM can become a business: groups of households (landless, etc.) can decide to become compost makers and provide “fertilization” services to other farmers.<br> | *<u>Objectives</u>: To promote compost making at household level for cost-effective soil fertility improvement<br>and to support local level compost entrepreneurship linked to natural resources management activities at watershed level. CM will improve soil fertility, increase water storage within the soil profile and reduce<br>surface runoff, thus reduce soil erosion. It is one of the best “hidden” water harvesting methods available (compost absorbs water 4-7 times its own weight). CM can be undertaken at very large scale and linked to area closure management and the upgrading of terraces into “cash crop production belts”. CM can become a business: groups of households (landless, etc.) can decide to become compost makers and provide “fertilization” services to other farmers.<br> | ||
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<br>'''Live Checkdams''' | <br>'''Live Checkdams''' | ||
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: Live check-dams are established by planting/seeding or plugging of cuttings in gully bottoms to replace or reinforce physical check-dams. The main objective of the establishment of live check-dams is to reduce the cost of | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: Live check-dams are established by planting/seeding or plugging of cuttings in gully bottoms to replace or reinforce physical check-dams. The main objective of the establishment of live check-dams is to reduce the cost of establis |
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+ | hing physical check-dams. Live check-dams can be applied by individual farmers and does not need the organization of a large group of people to undertake physical structures. | ||
<br>'''Mulching and Crop Residues Management''' | <br>'''Mulching and Crop Residues Management''' | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: Grass strips are vegetative barriers made out of grass planted in narrow strips of 0.5 to 1.5 m width laid out along the contour. Grass strips control erosion rather effectively in gentle slopes but above 5-8% slope their effect decreases. While contributing to protect soils against erosion they also provide valuable biomass meant to increase animal feed or used for different purposes (eg. roofing, etc.). Grass strips cause less interference than other measures as they can easily be crossed by oxen and plough. Moreover, grass strips take out little amount of arable land. Cost of construction is much lower than physical structures. | *<u>Objectives</u>: Grass strips are vegetative barriers made out of grass planted in narrow strips of 0.5 to 1.5 m width laid out along the contour. Grass strips control erosion rather effectively in gentle slopes but above 5-8% slope their effect decreases. While contributing to protect soils against erosion they also provide valuable biomass meant to increase animal feed or used for different purposes (eg. roofing, etc.). Grass strips cause less interference than other measures as they can easily be crossed by oxen and plough. Moreover, grass strips take out little amount of arable land. Cost of construction is much lower than physical structures. | ||
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<br>'''Stabilization of physical Structures and Farm Boundaries''' | <br>'''Stabilization of physical Structures and Farm Boundaries''' | ||
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<br>'''Vegetative Fencing''' | <br>'''Vegetative Fencing''' | ||
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: Vegetative fencing (VF) is a conservation practice which consist of a combination of vegetative planting materials resistant to cattle grazing planted in rows and with grass/legume plant species sowed behind these rows. Used to protect and enrich reclaimed areas like closures and gullies, farm boundaries and specific community assets like ponds. By doing so it also helps controlling runoff and erosion. It is the “first level of defence” against animal interference that allow other valuable trees to be planted after the fence is established. VF can be exercised as a “grid system” in closures, around reclaimed gullies, and<br>farms, providing increased sense of ownership to users. | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: Vegetative fencing (VF) is a conservation practice which consist of a combination of vegetative planting materials resistant to cattle grazing planted in rows and with grass/legume plant species sowed behind these rows. Used to protect and enrich reclaimed areas like closures and gullies, farm boundaries and specific community assets like ponds. By doing so it also helps controlling runoff and erosion. It is the “first level of defence” against animal interference that allow other valuable trees to be planted after the fence is established. |
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+ | VF can be exercised as a “grid system” in closures, around reclaimed gullies, and<br>farms, providing increased sense of ownership to users. | ||
<br>'''Ley Cropping''' | <br>'''Ley Cropping''' | ||
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#Integration of cropping optimises productivity by producing higher combined yields from the crops and greater economic returns from a given area of land than the same crop grown in monoculture. | #Integration of cropping optimises productivity by producing higher combined yields from the crops and greater economic returns from a given area of land than the same crop grown in monoculture. | ||
#Lower risk in intercropping than with mono cropping. | #Lower risk in intercropping than with mono cropping. | ||
− | #Better distribution pattern of labour demand. For example, land preparation is done only once for all crops and therefore the labour situation is less constrained. | + | #Better distribution pattern of labour demand. For example, land preparation is done only once for all crops and therefore the labour situation is less |
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+ | constrained. | ||
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#Control pests, diseases and weeds in the absence of biocides. | #Control pests, diseases and weeds in the absence of biocides. | ||
#Better control of soil erosion realised. | #Better control of soil erosion realised. | ||
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<br>'''Crop Rotation''' | <br>'''Crop Rotation''' | ||
− | *<u>Objectives</u>: Crop rotation is one of the oldest practices known to man for fertility restoration and pest/ disease control and it consists of growing different crops one after the other on the same piece<br>of land. Plants of the same crop develop their roots at the same depth of soil profile and thus the proliferation of the root systems in the same depth results in a strong competition for moisture and nutrients. Therefore, if the same crop is grown on the | + | *<u>Objectives</u>: Crop rotation is one of the oldest practices known to man for fertility restoration and pest/ disease control and it consists of growing different crops one after the other on the same piece<br>of land. Plants of the same crop develop their roots at the same depth of soil profile and thus the proliferation of the root systems in the same depth results in a strong competition for moisture and nutrients. Therefore, if the same crop is grown on the s |
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+ | ame land year after year, the soil nutrient in that layer decreases sharply and the crop yield consequently declines. On the other hand, if different crops are rotated, the depletion of soil nutrients and decline of crop yields are not as serious as when the same crop is grown year after year. Different crops have different characteristics that enable them to exploit the soil at different depths. Crops also differ in terms of their effect to the soil. Some crops restore or build fertility while others deplete fertility. | ||
<br>'''Strip Cropping''' | <br>'''Strip Cropping''' | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: A waterway is a natural or artificial drainage channel constructed along the steepest<br>slope or in a valley to receive/accommodate runoff from cut-off drains and graded terraces/bunds. The waterway carries the run-off to rivers, resevoirs or gullies safely without creating erosion. A vegetative waterway can be constructed in areas without stones. The main advantage is that waterways can be constructed for both very small and large size catchments, thus accomodating individual or communal needs for drainage and evacuation/use of excess run-off. Paved waterways are suitable in steeper terrains and areas with large amount of stones. | *<u>Objectives</u>: A waterway is a natural or artificial drainage channel constructed along the steepest<br>slope or in a valley to receive/accommodate runoff from cut-off drains and graded terraces/bunds. The waterway carries the run-off to rivers, resevoirs or gullies safely without creating erosion. A vegetative waterway can be constructed in areas without stones. The main advantage is that waterways can be constructed for both very small and large size catchments, thus accomodating individual or communal needs for drainage and evacuation/use of excess run-off. Paved waterways are suitable in steeper terrains and areas with large amount of stones. | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: Graded soil bund is similar in description with level soil bund. However, graded soil bund is upto a maximum of 1% inclined against the contour so that excess runoff is allowed to drain to the adjoining natural or artificial waterways. It is also possible and necessary to inculde tied ridges smaller in height within the channel of the terrace. The stored water within the ties can infiltrate into the soil while any above that height is drained out. Graded soil bunds can be made to gradually<br>develop in to benched type terraces through careful maintenace. Any integration of other measures such as stabilization and composting can be applied as it can be applied on level bunds. | *<u>Objectives</u>: Graded soil bund is similar in description with level soil bund. However, graded soil bund is upto a maximum of 1% inclined against the contour so that excess runoff is allowed to drain to the adjoining natural or artificial waterways. It is also possible and necessary to inculde tied ridges smaller in height within the channel of the terrace. The stored water within the ties can infiltrate into the soil while any above that height is drained out. Graded soil bunds can be made to gradually<br>develop in to benched type terraces through careful maintenace. Any integration of other measures such as stabilization and composting can be applied as it can be applied on level bunds. | ||
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<br>'''Graded Fanya Juu''' | <br>'''Graded Fanya Juu''' | ||
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#Early harvest when there is shortage of food supply and also help farmers benefit from higher prices. | #Early harvest when there is shortage of food supply and also help farmers benefit from higher prices. | ||
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'''<br>Family Drip Irrigation System''' | '''<br>Family Drip Irrigation System''' | ||
− | *Objectives: Increased frequency and uniformity of water application plus reduced competition from weeds results in improved plant growth and yield increases of 30 to 50 percent. The system is instrumental in increasing the size of plot and provide the right amount of water to crops at the the right time. Thus, resulting in increased production. | + | *Objectives: Increased frequency and uniformity of water application plus reduced competition from weeds results in improved plant growth and yield increases of 30 to 50 percent. The system is instrumental in increasing the size of plot and provide the right amount of water to crops at the the right time. Thus, resulting in increased production. |
'''<br>Roof Water Harvesting System''' | '''<br>Roof Water Harvesting System''' | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: The main objective is to considerably increase the biomass production of forage grass and legumes pastures and fodder crops and/or allow the introduction of species having higher water requirements in abandoned, marginal and eroded dry areas. The principle of the system and its application is the same as for runoff/runon systems suggested for the cultivated areas. Rainfall multiplier systems for grazing land can also rehabilite fertility (decay of grass and increased moisture). In this respect, a few years pasture improvement and soil fertility restoration may allow the<br>area to be cropped again. The main difference between this measure and the one described for the cultivated land is that instead of food crops fodder plants are grown. The system is less demanding in terms of size of structures and management of the plots as fodder species require less water than food crops. | *<u>Objectives</u>: The main objective is to considerably increase the biomass production of forage grass and legumes pastures and fodder crops and/or allow the introduction of species having higher water requirements in abandoned, marginal and eroded dry areas. The principle of the system and its application is the same as for runoff/runon systems suggested for the cultivated areas. Rainfall multiplier systems for grazing land can also rehabilite fertility (decay of grass and increased moisture). In this respect, a few years pasture improvement and soil fertility restoration may allow the<br>area to be cropped again. The main difference between this measure and the one described for the cultivated land is that instead of food crops fodder plants are grown. The system is less demanding in terms of size of structures and management of the plots as fodder species require less water than food crops. | ||
− | ''' | + | <br>'''Narrow Stone Lines Along the Contour''' |
*<u>Objectives</u>: Stone lines are semi-permeable or permeable structures, intended to capture some moisture and thus allow the growth of spontaneous grass. By slowing down runoff they also decrease erosion, although not completely. This is a soil and moisture conservation measure suitable for rangelands and degraded grazing lands in dry areas. The measure is less labour intensive and material demanding than small stone faced soil bunds but less efficient. The principle is rainfall multiplier system but the measure is applicable only if stones are available. | *<u>Objectives</u>: Stone lines are semi-permeable or permeable structures, intended to capture some moisture and thus allow the growth of spontaneous grass. By slowing down runoff they also decrease erosion, although not completely. This is a soil and moisture conservation measure suitable for rangelands and degraded grazing lands in dry areas. The measure is less labour intensive and material demanding than small stone faced soil bunds but less efficient. The principle is rainfall multiplier system but the measure is applicable only if stones are available. | ||
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*<u>Objectives</u>: The measure is a rainfall multiplier system that allow cultivation of crops in low rainfall areas. It is applied in areas with sandy and sandy loamy soils affected by low fertility levels and thin<br>surface crusts that inhibit infiltration and increase runoff. Large half moons are suitable structures to enable cultivation of drought resistant crops in areas with very low rainfall. They intercept all runoff and stop erosion. It is also a measure suitable for rangelands and degraded grazing lands in dry areas (forage crops). | *<u>Objectives</u>: The measure is a rainfall multiplier system that allow cultivation of crops in low rainfall areas. It is applied in areas with sandy and sandy loamy soils affected by low fertility levels and thin<br>surface crusts that inhibit infiltration and increase runoff. Large half moons are suitable structures to enable cultivation of drought resistant crops in areas with very low rainfall. They intercept all runoff and stop erosion. It is also a measure suitable for rangelands and degraded grazing lands in dry areas (forage crops). | ||
− | ''' | + | <br>'''Diversion Weir Des''''''ign and Construction <br>''' |
*<u>Objectives</u>: To divert stream flow for use during dry seasons for the purpose of small scale irrigation and for any other supplementary irrigation. | *<u>Objectives</u>: To divert stream flow for use during dry seasons for the purpose of small scale irrigation and for any other supplementary irrigation. | ||
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==== Income generating measures ==== | ==== Income generating measures ==== | ||
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Revision as of 10:50, 25 April 2011
The identification of appropriate mitigation and intervention techniques on the basis of the Environment Assessment is crucial for the implementation of a successful Watershed Action Plan in order to achieve a sustainable use of the catchment area and thus the MHP project. Biophysical as well as political mitigation and intervention techniques are listed in the table below:
BIOPHYSICAL MEASURES[1] |
|
Gully control |
Stone Checkdams
Gully Resheping, Filling and Revegetation
Sediment Storage and Overflow Earth Dams (SS Dams) for Productive Gulley Control
|
Agro-forestry, Forage Development and Forestry |
Area Closure
Microbasins (MBs)
|
Soil Fertility Management and Biological Soil Conservation |
Compost Making
Fertilization and Manuring
hing physical check-dams. Live check-dams can be applied by individual farmers and does not need the organization of a large group of people to undertake physical structures.
Grass Strips along the Contours
VF can be exercised as a “grid system” in closures, around reclaimed gullies, and
constrained.
ame land year after year, the soil nutrient in that layer decreases sharply and the crop yield consequently declines. On the other hand, if different crops are rotated, the depletion of soil nutrients and decline of crop yields are not as serious as when the same crop is grown year after year. Different crops have different characteristics that enable them to exploit the soil at different depths. Crops also differ in terms of their effect to the soil. Some crops restore or build fertility while others deplete fertility.
|
Flood Control and Improved Drainage |
Waterways (Vegetative and Stone Paved)
Cut-off Drains
|
Physical Soil and Water Conservation |
Level Soil Bunds
|
Water harvesting |
Hand-dug Wells
|
POLITICAL MEASURES |
|
Education and training |
|
Income generating measures |
|
Participatory approach |
Box 1 shows three examples of how (rather simple) interventions can improve the environmental condition of the catchment. A more detailed list of mitigation and intervention techniques and the respective application can be found in DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 1: Community Based Participatory Watershed Development. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, pages 69 – 165 and DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 2: Community Based Participatory Watershed Development: Annex. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, pages 43 - 48.
Box 1:
|
References
- ↑ DESTA, L. ET AL. (2005): Part 1: Community Based Participatory Watershed Development: A Guideline. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.
- ↑ HELVETAS (2005): Helvetas Wasser Fact Sheet: Quellen und Quellschutz.
- ↑ GALE, J.A. (unknown): Watershedss Wetland Management. http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/wetlands/manage.html#prot
- ↑ SUNGSUMARN, K. (1993): Why Eucalyptus is Not Adopted for Agroforestry. In: Kashio, M. et al. (Hrsg.)(1996): Reports Submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus - Volume II. Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.
Per