The Role of Gender in the Energy and Agriculture Nexus

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Overview

Improved access to energy services has a potential to enhance women’s social and economic situation by freeing up time for economic activities and participation in political and social life and improving access to public services, especially to healthcare and education. Women and men benefit from energy services differently, due to the differences in access to and control over resources and the traditional gender roles.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] The Integration of Gender Issues is vital for energy projects in developing and emerging countries.[8]

Since access to energy doesn’t necessarily translate into outcomes without availability of appliances or access to energy services, individual as well as at the community level, the article approaches the issue of access to energy from the energy poverty standpoint.[3] Such essential energy services for women as refrigeration, food processing related services, solar water pumping and solar irrigation can significantly reduce drudgery and time involved in household and agricultural activities.[3] The daylight hours and effort freed from chores can be and are often invested into income generation.[9] Generation of own resources by women improve their decision-making power and access to other productive resources.[6][7]


IDE Nepal SPIS.jpg

Woman in front of a solar panel in Nepal (©iDE)


Gender and Agriculture

Agriculture is an energy intensive sector. It plays an important role in economic developmentand employs over 40 percent of the labour force in many countries in Asia and the Pacific as well as over 60 percent of workforce in most of sub-Saharan Africa.[10] [11] In some countries in Asia, 60 percent of economically active women participate in agriculture and over 70 per cent in some sub-Saharan African countries.[12] Rural-urban migration of men further increases the role of women in agriculture as well as the number of female-headed households.[13] The challenge, however, is that gender inequalities in access to energy services, land, credits and agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertilizer remain widespread.[14] These inequalities increase vulnerability of women in rural areas to the effects of climate change and reduce agricultural productivity and efficiency.[15][13]

Access to electricity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for tackling gender inequalities.[16][5] It is, however, important what services access to electricity can support and what benefits of access to such services this can generate. New water management technologies such as solar water pumps can mitigate the risks associated with limited access to electricity in rural areas and the high cost of pumping groundwater, reduce GHG emissions and translate the benefits of access to energy into socio-economic outcomes, that otherwise cannot be achieved.[3]Unfortunately, due to factors related to limited access to credit or decision making, women fare worse in the adoption of agricultural innovations. The International Center for Research on Women suggests that enhancing women’s access to vital agricultural inputs that require intensive use of energy, such as irrigation technology can substantially boost their agricultural productivity and incomes. In a broader sense, improved access to technology can further boost the impact of availability of the high quality electricity supply on equality and poverty reduction, especially if accompanied by provision of (1) access to finance for electrical appliances, (2) markets, (3) skills for entrepreneurs, and (4) access to other infrastructure or services.[5]

See also: World Bank Sourcebook, 2008. Gender in Agriculture

And here: National Geographic, 2014. Revealing the Gap Between Men and Women Farmers

Furthermore, the majority of informal sector enterprises in the Global South are owned and operated by women. Women are twice as likely as men to work in the informal sector but face constraints to grow their business to a sufficient scale. At the same time, being formally registered and using electricity correlate positively and significantly with higher profits. Female enterprises tend to be concentrated in a relatively narrow range of activities, operate at smaller scale and use less machinery. A certain gendered occupational segregation often takes place in the countries of the Global South. Gender norms determine the types of sectors in which men and women operate and the tasks they undertake due to socially constructed as well as biological differences between men and women. To illustrate, women are heavily involved in subsistence agriculture, while men dominate fishing and cultivation of cash crops – the key sources of agricultural income.[5] This means that in agriculture, women often earn income only when they work as wage labourers or when they are self-employed.[17] Male-dominated activities are also more energy-intensive, more value adding and require more advanced equipment.[5] The type of fuel and amount consumed is in great part determined by the sector of operation.[5] Women tend to diversify their energy sources choice less than men due to a variety of factors.[18]

Furthermore, the majority of informal sector enterprises in developing countries are owned and operated by women, with women making up the largest proportion of the work force. Their enterprises tend to be concentrated in a relatively narrow range of activities, are often very energy intensive, yet rely on biomass fuels and have disproportionately low rates of return compared to the activities undertaken by men. Also men dominate those income activities that are more value adding and require more advanced equipment, such as energy technologies. In food processing enterprises it has been estimated that energy costs are 20 - 25% of the total inputs, which would suggest that technological interventions could increase the scale and profitability of these businesses.[19]

See also: Productive Use of Energy for Rural Development and Energy in Agricultural Processing

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Gender Issues in the Context of Energy Poverty and Rural Development

Expanded energy sources are necessary to provide: mechanical power for agriculture, food processing, water pumping and irrigation; modern fuels for cooking and heating; electricity for lighting, refrigeration, communications, commercial enterprises and community services in rural areas. Without access to efficient and affordable energy sources, rural communities have thus very limited opportunities for economic and social development.[20] Access to Modern Energy is however problematic in most developing countries. According to the estimates of the International Energy Agency (IEA), 2.6 billion people around the world currently rely on traditional uses of energy to cover their basic energy needs. This figure is expected to rise to 2.7 billion by 2030.[21] Over 80 % of these people live in the rural areas of Africa and Asia.

See also: Energy Poverty

This lack of access to energy is experienced very differently by men and women in developing countries. The energy sector continues to be dominated by men, especially at decision making levels. Households headed by women are particularly disadvantaged, which constrains women’s energy access as well.[22] Poor women in rural areas generally have a more difficult time compared to men, due to their traditional socio-cultural roles. They often spend long hours collecting fuel wood and the time and labour spent in this way limits their ability to engage in other productive and income-generating activities. Their health suffers from hauling heavy loads of fuel and water, and from cooking over smoky fires. Their opportunities for education and income generation are limited by lack of modern energy services, and as a result their families and communities are likely to remain trapped in poverty.[23]  

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Gender and Energy Projects

Although "gender inequality persists at every level of the energy sector, gender sensitive energy projects and research are still the exception rather than the rule” [19].

Women in rural areas face particular obstacles in accessing renewable energy technologies due to their relatively high poverty levels, lower access to credit (due to low access to land and other resources that could serve as collateral), lower literacy rates and less access to information.[24] According to the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy (WISIONS), lessons learned from their projects (SEPS) show that gender can influence the sustainability of a project, the technological choice, the use patterns and the decision-making. While they find that about 47% of project designs addressed gender issues less than fairly, the choice of technology had no significant influence on how far gender-related concerns were considered as part of the project concepts. Furthermore, while projects where implemented in over 40 countries in Latin America, Asia, Africa and the Middle-East, no concerning differences could be found between those regions. Projects in Latin America had, however, a slightly more gender-sensitive design. Yet, it has also been demonstrated that integrating gender issues i.e. women’s needs as a key variable in energy projects makes it more likely that energy will have a substantial impact on household and community poverty and on gender equality. Thus where energy interventions address women’s equal participation, the potential for benefits is much higher for all.[25] 

See: The Role of Gender Concerns in the Planning of Small Scale Energy Projects (WISIONS)

The EU Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility (EUEI PDF) in cooperation with ENERGIA, the International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy, has elaborated the Gender Briefing Notes - Supporting active inclusion of women in energy and development projects. The brochure highlights relevant gender dimensions in four thematic pillars: Energy Access, Renewable Energy, Biomass Energy and Energy Efficiency. The section on gender issues in renewable energy technologies and programmes is particularly interesing regarding agricultural productive use of energy.

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Gender and the Agriculture and Energy Nexus

In their article “Energy and Agricultural Technologies for Women’s Economic Advancement” the International Center for Research on Women (2012) states that engaging women in the development and distribution of a (renewable energy based) agricultural technology, which in turn enables their access and use of the technology, generates a positive chain reaction with extensive outcomes. This process unlocks two key pathways to economic progress for women by; 1) enhancing women’s productivity in existing economic activities, and 2) by creating new economic opportunities for women. For example, technology that irrigates arable land (e.g. Solar Powered Irrigation Systems) can improve crop yield and reduce the amount of time women must spend collecting water. To this end, female-headed households in Ethiopia increased their net incomes on average by US$268, or about 18 % by using treadle irrigation pumps.[26]

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CASE STUDY: Gender impacts of Solar Powered Irrigation

Solar irrigation can also have a positive impact on gender equality. Women in Africa and Asia make up 50% of the agricultural labor force, yet they have less access to credit and formal banking, which can be improved by credit history borne from payments for pay-as-you-go solar water pumps. Savings in time and labor were also seen in irrigation projects by the Solar Electric Light Fund, which supported women’s farming groups in rural Benin. It is the women’s traditional role to haul water by hand, often from very long distances.

For more information on Solar Electric Light go here.



CASE STUDY: A few examples

Solar Sister, a network of energy solutions distributors, shows how female entrepreneurs can play a role at the forefront of the clean energy revolution, with the company growing from two to 1,250 entrepreneurs in just five years.

ICIMOD's subside program for SPIS in Nepal: To promote the uptake of SPIS in Nepal's Terai, ICIMOD provides a subsidy to farmers in the Terai region of Nepal. This region also has a huge gender gap between men and women and thus to close the gender gap as well as promote the uptake of SPIS by women farmers, it additional 10% subsidy if the land is registered in the women's name.

Solar Market Garden in Benin: The SPIS systems are usually expensive and thus, small holder farmers are not able to afford them, especially the women. Thus, this project led to the formation of solar market gardens where 35-45 women come together and form a cooperative. As a cooperative, they are then able to afford the SPIS system as well as sustainably maintain them. The SPIS system then reduce the drudgery for the women and also increases the agriculture production.


Gender Guidance Resources

Powering Agriculture: An Energy Grand Challenge for Development (PAEGC) has published a series of 6 topical guides focused on integrating gender into the development and deployment of clean energy solutions (CES) for the agricultural sector. The practical guides can assist innovators and others working in the clean energy/agriculture nexus and related fields to better reach and serve women—a large, important, and often overlooked market segment.

The guides cover the following areas and you can access individual guides by clicking on the topics:


Further Information

 For more information see:


References

  1. ↑ ENERGIA. (2017a). Gender in SDG 7: bridging the knowledge gap. The ENERGIA Gender and Energy Research Programme. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Research-program_FINAL_share-version.pdf.
  2. ↑ ENERGIA. (2017b). What we know so far and policy considerations. The ENERGIA Gender and Energy Research Programme. Policy Brief #1. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Policybrief-Energia-March-GERP-2017-final-lr.pdf.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 ENERGIA. (2020a). The role of appliances in achieving gender equality and energy access for all. The ENERGIA Gender and Energy Research Programme. Policy Brief #4. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/PolicyBrief4_The-role-of-appliances-gender-equality-energy-access-for-all_FINAL.pdf.
  4. ↑ ENERGIA. (2020b). Why energy access and gender equality are inextricably linked? The ENERGIA Gender and Energy Research Programme. Policy Brief #2. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Policy-Brief-No.-2-February-2020-Why-energy-access-and-gender-equality-are-inextricably-linked.pdf.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 IDS and GIZ. (2019). Unlocking the Benefits of Productive Uses of Energy for Women in Ghana, Tanzania and Myanmar. Research report RA6, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/RA6-Unlocking-the-benefits-of-productive-uses-of-energy.pdf. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "IDS and GIZ. (2019). Unlocking the Benefits of Productive Uses of Energy for Women in Ghana, Tanzania and Myanmar. Research report RA6, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/RA6-Unlocking-the-benefits-of-productive-uses-of-energy.pdf." defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "IDS and GIZ. (2019). Unlocking the Benefits of Productive Uses of Energy for Women in Ghana, Tanzania and Myanmar. Research report RA6, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/RA6-Unlocking-the-benefits-of-productive-uses-of-energy.pdf." defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "IDS and GIZ. (2019). Unlocking the Benefits of Productive Uses of Energy for Women in Ghana, Tanzania and Myanmar. Research report RA6, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/RA6-Unlocking-the-benefits-of-productive-uses-of-energy.pdf." defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "IDS and GIZ. (2019). Unlocking the Benefits of Productive Uses of Energy for Women in Ghana, Tanzania and Myanmar. Research report RA6, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/RA6-Unlocking-the-benefits-of-productive-uses-of-energy.pdf." defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "IDS and GIZ. (2019). Unlocking the Benefits of Productive Uses of Energy for Women in Ghana, Tanzania and Myanmar. Research report RA6, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/RA6-Unlocking-the-benefits-of-productive-uses-of-energy.pdf." defined multiple times with different content
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 University of Oslo, TERI, Seacrester Consulting and Dunamai Energy (2019). Women’s empowerment and electricity access: How do grid and off-grid systems enhance or restrict gender equality? Research report RA1, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/RA1-Womens-empowerment-and-electricity-access.pdf.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 University of Twente, University of Cape Town, MARGE and ENDA Energie (2019). Productive Uses of Energy and Gender in the Street Food Sector in Rwanda, Senegal and South Africa. Research report RA2, ENERGIA. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/RA2-Productive-uses-of-energy-in-the-street-food-sector.pdf.
  8. ↑ Lambrou, Y., Piana, G. (2006). Energy and Gender Issues in Rural Sustainable Development. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
  9. ↑ Modi, V., McDade, S., Lallement, D., J. Saghir, J. (2005). Energy and the Millennium Development Goals. Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme, United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/environment-energy/sustainable_energy/energy_services_forthemillenniumdevelopmentgoals.html.
  10. ↑ Clancy, J. S., Skutsch, M., & Batchelor, S. (2002). The Gender-Energy-Poverty Nexus: Finding the energy to address gender concerns in development
  11. ↑ International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT. (2020a). Employment in agriculture (% of total employment). Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS.
  12. ↑ International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT. (2020b). Employment in agriculture, female (% of female employment). Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.FE.ZS?view=map.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 FAO, 2003. Gender and Sustainable Development in Drylands: an Analysis of Field Experiences. Retrieved April, 20, 2020 from http://www.fao.org/3/j2211e/J2211E00.htm.
  14. ↑ World Bank, FAO and IFAD. (2009). Gender in agriculture sourcebook. The World Bank: Washington, D.C
  15. ↑ Islam, N. & Winkel, J. (2017). Climate Change and Social Inequality. DESA Working Paper No. 152. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2017/wp152_2017.pdf.
  16. ↑ Pueyo A, Hanna R. (2015). What level of electricity access is required to enable and sustain poverty reduction? Annex 1 – Literature review. Institute of Development Studies and Practical Action Consulting. Retrieved from https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/UtilisingElectricityAccessforPovertyReduction-LiteratureReview.pdf.
  17. ↑ Dev, N. et al. (2018). Energy Use and Women’s Work in Agriculture Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emission. Economic and Political Weekly, 54, 17. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Energy-Women-Climate-Change-EPW-2018.pdf.
  18. ↑ Ruggles, M., Lenci, L., Muller, T. (2020). The ENERGIA Gender and Energy Research Programme: A short overview of the results. Newsletter of the ENERGIA International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy. The ENERGIA Gender and Energy Research Programme. Retrieved from https://www.energia.org/cm2/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Energia-News-March-2020.pdf.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Cecelski, Elizabeth. 2004. Conceptual Review. Re-thinking Gender and Energy: Old
  20. ↑ Clancy, J. S., Skutsch, M., & Batchelor, S. (2002). The Gender-Energy-Poverty Nexus: Finding the energy to address gender concerns in development.
  21. ↑ IEA, 2011
  22. ↑ UNDP 2012.
  23. ↑ UNDP 2001
  24. ↑ Gender Briefing Notes: Supporting active inclusion of women in energy and development projects.
  25. ↑ ENERGIA/DFID, 2006
  26. ↑ Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Behrman, J. and Nkonya, E. (2010). Understanding gender differences in agriculturalfckLRproductivity in Uganda and Nigeria. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01003.


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